
Gass L H (a 1 
Book ' Ms 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



BULLETIN. 1917, No. 16 



STUDIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN 
ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND 

WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 
IN THE UNITED STATES 



By GEORGE EDWIN MACLEAN 

FORMERLY PRESIDENT OP THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917 




=^^No. 


3. 


*No. 


4. 


No. 


5. 


No. 


6. 


*No. 


7. 


*No. 


8. 


*No. 


9. 


No. 


10. 



BULLETIN OF THE BUEEAU OF EDUCATION. 

Note. — With the exceptions indicaled, the documents named below will be sent free 
of charge upon appllcatton to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Those 
marked with an asterisk (*) are no longer available for free distribution, but may be 
had of the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington. D. C, 
upon payment of the price stated. Remittances should be made in coin, currency, or 
money order. Stamps are not accepted. 

For numbers prior to 1916 see leaflet, "List of Available Publications, liurcau of 
Education," which may be had on application, 

1916. 

*No. 1. Education exhibits at the Panama-Pacific luteruational Exposition. 

W. Carson Ryan, jr. 25 cts. 
No. 2. Agricultural and rural education at the Panama-Pacific International 
Exposition. H. W. Foght. 
Placement of childi-en in the elementary grades. K. J. Holje. 10 cts. 
Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1916. 

5 cts. 
Kindergarten training schools. 

Statistics of State universities and State colleges, 1915. 
7. Monthly record of current ediicational publications, February, 1916. 
5 cts. 
Pceorganization of the public-school system. F. F. Bunker. 20 cts. 
Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1916. 5 ct.s. 
Needed changes in secondary education. Charles W. Eliot and Ernesto 
Nelson. 
*No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1916. 5 cts. 
No. 12. Problems involved in standardizing State normal schools. C. H. Judd 

and S. C. Parker. 
*No. 13. Monthly record of curi-ent educational publications, May, 1916. 5 tts. 
*No. 14. State pension systems for public-school teachers. W. Carson Ryan, jr., 

and Roberta King. 10 cts. 
*No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications — Index, Februaiy, 

1915-January, 1916. 5 cts. 
*No. 16. Reorganizing a county system, of rural schools. J. Harold Williams. 

10 cts. 
No. 17. The Wisconsin county training schools for teachers in rural schools. 

W. E. Larson. 
*No. 18. Public facilities for educating the alien. F. E. Farrington. 10 cts. 
No. 19. State higher educational institutions of Iowa. 

No. 20. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. Samuel P. Capen. 
No. 21. Vocational secondary education. 
*No. 22. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1916. 

5 cts. 
No. 23. Open-air schools. S. P. Kiugsley and F. B. Dresslar. 
N(». 24. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1916. 
No. 25. Commercial education. Glen Levin Swiggett. 

No. 26. A survey of the educational institutions of the State of Washington. 
No. 27. State higher educationalinstitutions of North Daliota. 
*No. 28. The social studies in secondary education. Arthur W. Dunn. 10 cts. 
No. 29. Educational survey of Wyoming. A. O. Monahan and Katherine M. 

Cook. 
No. 30. University training for public service. 

[Continued on p. 3 of cover.] 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



BULLETIN, 1917, No. 16 



STUDIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN 
ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND 

WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 
IN THE UNITED STATES 



By GEORGE EDWIN MACLEAN 

FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

I9I7 



-Mi 



ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCimED FEOM 

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCimENTS 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

•WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 

25 CENTS PER COPY 



D. of D. 
DEC 5 1917 



^ CONTENTS, 



Page. 

Letter of transmittal ^ 

Preface '^ 

Introduction ■ ^ 

Part I. — Historical Studies and Suggestions. 

Chapter I. — First group of universities — Oxford, Cambridge, Durham__ 13 

Chapter II. — Scotch universities 46 

St. Andrews 56 

Glasgow 58 

Aberdeen 61 

Edinburgh 08 

Chapter III. — University of London 67 

University College 72 

King's College 77 

Imperial College of Science and Technology 7S 

The London School of Economics and Political Science 82 

A group of institutions belonging to the university 85 

Brown Animal Sanatory Institution 85 

Physiological Laboratory 85 

Francis Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics 86 

Goldsmiths' College 86 

The organization of the university 95 

Chapter IV. — The new or provincial universities 102 

Manchester 112 

Birmingham 116 

Liverpool J 119 

Leeds 122 

Sheffield 12.5 

Bristol 127 

Chapter V. — Independent university colleges — Exeter, Nottingham, Read- 
ing, Southampton 130 

Chapter VI. — Technical colleges and schools 136 

Chapter VII. — Agricultural colleges and schools 139 

Chapter VIII. — Women's colleges 14S 

Pabt II. — Topical Studies and Suggestions, 

Chapter IX. — Organization and administration of universities 159 

Chapter X. — University officers 170 

Chapter XL — Provisions for the faculty 182 

Chapter XII. — State aid and visitation 190 

Chapter XIII. — Coordination of institutions 195 

Chapter XIV. — Applied science and professional education 205 

Chapter XV. — Advanced study and research without graduate schools__ 214 

Chapter XVI. — Examinations 223 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Chapter XVII.— Curricula 232 

Chapter XVIII.— Student life 239 

Chapter XIX. — University extension teaching 249 

Pakt III. — Statistical Tables. 

Table 1. — Oxford, Cambridge, Duirham — Finances, staff, and students 258 

Table 2.— Scotch universities— Staff and students, 1912-13 260 

Table 3.— Scotch universities— Financial statement, 1903-1913 261 

Table 4. — University of London — Staff and students 26:^ 

Table 5. — University of London — Financial statement 263 

Table 6. — University of London institution for instruction and research.. 264 

Table 7. — New or provincial universities — Staff and students in 1912-13 266 

Table 8. — New or provincial universities — Financial statement, 1903-1913- 267 

Table 9. — Independent university colleges 268 

Table 10. — Independent university colleges — Financial statement 269 

Table 11. — Agricultural and technical colleges and schools — Staff and 

students 270 

Table 12. — Agricultural and technical colleges and schools — Financial 

statement 272 

Table 13. — Women's colleges — Staff and students 273 

Table 14. — Women's colleges — Financial statement 274 

Table 15. — Range of salaries 275. 

Index 277 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, March 10, 1917. 
Sir : Because the changes in tendencies and ideals in higher educa- 
tion in Great Britain and the consequent changes in the curriculum 
and the details of administration in colleges and universities \\'ithin 
the last few years contained so much of general interest for higher 
education in the United States, in 1913 I commissioned Dr. George 
Edwin MacLean, formerly president of the State University of loM^a, 
to make a careful first-hand study of the newer features of these 
institutions, and to prepare a report on them for this bureau. This 
study was made by Dr. MacLean, with the generous cooperation of 
university and college officials between 1913 and 1915. The report 
thus includes an account of progress until the beginning of the 
present war. I recommend that these reports be published as bulletins 
of the Bureau of Education under the titles, " Studies in higher 
education in England and Scotland " and " Studies in higher educa- 
tion in Ireland and Wales." 
Respectfully submitted. 

P. P. Claxton, 

CorrmiissioTier. 
The Secretary of the Interiok. 

6 



PREFACE. 



The object of this study, and of the preceding one devoted to 
Ireland and Wales, is to point out facts and tendencies in higher 
education in Great Britain by which American universities and 
colleges can profit. Since May, 1913, the compiler of the bulletin 
has visited 56 institutions, of which 18 have been universities, 14 
university colleges, 24 colleges and technical and agricultural col- 
leges and schools.^ 

The wide diversity in the institutions due to differences in age, 
type, and even race, may easily lead one astray in a comparative 
study of them. The differences in phraseology among the British 
institutions themselves, and in turn the differences between their 
usages and those current in the United States, must be constantly 
kept in mind to prevent confusion of thought. 

Uniformly the officials and other members of the staffs of instruc- 
tion of the institutions as well as prominent educationists in the 
national boards of education and eminent leaders in the world of 
politics and thought, have shown courtesies to the writer and have 
put at his disposal important documents, to all of whom he makes 
grateful acknowledgment. 

^ They are as follows : Universities — Oxford, Cambridge, London, Durham, St. Andrews, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Wales, Dublin (Trinity College), National University of 
Ireland, Queen's University of Belfast, Victoria University of Manchester, Birmingham, 
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol ; university colleges, at London — University College, 
King's College, King's College for WoUien ; at Newcastle — Armstrong College, Dundee, 
and the Department of Medicine ; Cork, Galway, Dublin, Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, 
Reading, Exeter ; colleges, technical and agricultural colleges and schools (outside the 
Incorporated colleges), at Oxford — Ruskin College, Lady Margaret Hall, Somerville ; 
at Cambridge — Girton, Newnham, Selwyn ; at London — Imperial College of Science, 
Bedford College for Women, East London College, London School of Economics, Gold- 
smiths' College, Woolwich Polytechnic ; at Manchester — the Municipal School of Tech- 
nology ; at Glasgow — Royal Technical College, West of Scotland Agricultural College ; 
at Dundee — Technical College ; at Aberdeen — City's Domestic Science School, Gordon's 
College ; at Edinburgh — Heriot-Watt College ; at Dublin — the Royal College of Science, 
the Albert Agricultural College, Glasnevin, Alexandra College ; at Belfast — Royal Bel- 
fast Academical Institute, Municipal Technical Institute. The Irish and Welsh institu- 
tions mentioned above will be treated in the bulletin on Higher Education in Ireland 
and Walea. 

% 



STUDIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND 
.\ND SCOTLAND. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The present is a moment of the keenest interest for the study of 
institutions of higher learning, particularly of universities, in Great 
Britain. Before the war they were in a stage of such rapid evolu- 
tion as to leave the question in the balance whether the outcome would 
be revolution or reform. The war heightens the inter-^st. Will it 
arrest their development or accelerate it ? 

The agitation of a half century, which culminated in the parlia- 
mentary universities' acts of 1854, 1856, and 1858, largely shifted 
the English and Scotch universities from an Elizabethan to a Vic- 
torian administration and atmosphere. The last 60 years have seen 
continuous changes wrought within the universities, in part of their 
own motion, and in part by royal commissions and acts of Parlia- 
ment. The report of the royal commission on university education 
in London in 1913, and rumors of further royal commissions, show 
the end is not yet. The universities are beginning to feel the effects 
of the educational era inaugurated in England for elementary edu- 
cation by the act of 1870, and continued by a series of educational 
acts. The aspiration for a national system of education, which ma- 
tiired early in Scotland, and was formulated in Wales to the extent 
of founding its national university in 1893, is strong in England, and 
would make the universities the coordinating centers. The people 
are beginning to look to the universities and colleges as the light and 
power stations for the "school power," which Dr. Sadler has put 
next in importance to " sea power " for the Island. The rise of the 
industrial age brought home to England as a world power, especially 
by the increased competition in trade and manufactures of the United 
States, and particularly of Germany, the need for the promotion of 
technical schools and of attention to modern languages and applied 
science in the higher institutions. 

Imperialism has stimulated the universities to affiliate or recog- 
nize colleges throughout the Empire. In 1912 it became a conscious 
force in the university's sphere through the first congress of the uni- 
versities of the Empire, and it seeks a permanent organ of expression 
in The Universities Bureau of the British Empire. The war has 
intensified the note of imperialism. 

9 



10 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Romance surrounds the genesis and growth of English universi- 
ties. After the evening and the morning of the twelfth and thir- 
teenth centuries, when the light of Oxford and Cambridge dawned, 
there came six centuries of rest from the making of an English uni- 
versity by a people otherwise so active. At length religious reac- 
tions, science, industrialism, and nationalism brought a new creative 
day in the nineteenth century, in which appeared the three Universi- 
ties of London, Durham, and the Federal Victoria University, to- 
gether with various satellite university colleges and technical schools. 
The first decade of the twentieth century saw the organization in 
their present form of the six Universities of Birmingham, Man- 
chester, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol, equaling the total 
number established during the preceding seven hundred years. 

The romance of the history of British universities is unrivaled. 
On the one hand is the halo of antiquity, piety, and patriotism, 
which hangs about the ancient universities, with their kings and 
queens, martyrs, churchmen, statesmen, and scholars; and on the 
other hand, the modern institutions, with their tale of the munifi- 
cence of captains of industry, of self-sacrificing women, of civic 
pride and of national and humanitarian service. 

The oneness of the New World with the Old is found in the par- 
allel story of the planting of American colleges along the Atlantic 
seaboard and by the western pioneers on the prairies and beyond 
the Rockies. Indeed, the similarities between the British and Ameri- 
can institutions grow upon one who studies them. Knowing the de- 
scent of the American from the English college, one is prepared for 
the family likeness, and recognizes that the diflferences are largely 
superficial. Both are at work upon the same great problems. Each 
may learn from the other. The British commissions and delegations 
of teachers have not been slow in recent times to visit America and 
to profit by American educational experiments. 

The subject of this bulletin has an immediate practical as well as 
a theoretical interest, in view of the considerable and increasing num- 
ber of American students in the United Kingdom, in addition to the 
nearly 100 Rhodes scholars from the United States in residence at 
Oxford. A better understanding of the higher education of the two 
countries will cement the bond of common Anglo-Saxon institutions, 
language, literature, and international obligations. 

The institutions in England and Scotland fall into eight groups, 
consisting of four types of universities and four kinds of colleges. 
They are, in the approximate order of their evolution: I. Oxford 
and Cambridge, with Durham as a modern variation. II. The 
Scotch universities, St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh. 
III. London. IV. The new or provincial universities at Manchester 
(Victoria), Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol. 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

V. The independent university colleges at Exeter, Nottingham, 
Reading, and Southampton. VI. Technical colleges and schools. 
VII. Agricultural colleges and schools. VIII. Women's colleges. 

The older groups have been the direct or indirect progenitors of 
the younger. Over and above formal affiliations, all the groups are 
more closely interrelated than the public are aware of, by the pres- 
ence on their faculties of the graduates of the different institutions, 
by joint examining boards, and by common representatives on their 
governing boards. On the other hand each institution of the same 
type has the most distinct individuality. 

The first part (Chapters I- VIII) of the bulletin consists of studies 
of certain historical features of these groups, in order to understand 
present conditions and tendencies in true perspective, and with 
incidental suggestions interspersed. The second part (Chapters 
IX-XIX), based upon the studies of the first part, is an attempt 
to apply them to the solution of problems common on both sides of 
the Atlantic. The third part (Tables 1-15) contains statistical in- 
formation, most of which was kindly furnished directly to me by the 
institutions and represents the normal conditions of the year before 
the war. 



PART l.-HISTORICAL STUDIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 



Chapter I. 

FIRST GROUP OF UNIVERSITIES.^ 
Oxford, Cambridge, Durham. 



The twin universities, Oxford and Cambridge, are unique among 
the world's universities. Solitary in their grandeur in England for 
six hundred years, their modern variant, Durham, appeared in the 
nineteenth century. Oxford and Cambridge, alone known still in 
England as " the Varsities," together with the Scotch universities, 
are the parents of all the universities and colleges in the English- 
speaking world. They are marvels of complexity, representing a 
luxuriant tangle and growth of centuries. It is not surprising that 
many half truths abound concerning them. The greatest surprise 
IS to find that, amidst their outward medievalism and the populai' 
notion of their ultraconservatism, they are permeated with the spirit 
of progress. In view of their historical leadership and relations to 
American institutions they can teach many lessons to the United 
States. All this is contrary to the ideas of many Americans and 
Englishmen. A professor at Oxford, when he learned the purpose 
of the author's visit, to gather hints for the improvement of Ameri- 
can education, exclaimed, " Good heavens ! We need that you should 
send missionaries to teach us." Whatever of truth there may be in 
this exclamation, an American must not forget that apostles from 
Oxford and Cambridge planted the colleges and universities of his 
land. 

The home was the primordial germ of the university, with the 
teacher as its nucleus. The scholars gathered in the house of the 
teacher, the magister, who had come from Paris or Italy. As the 
scholar's fellowcraftsmen of different trades, when aliens in a foreign 
city, organized a guild, called a universitas^ so the scholars' com- 
munity springing from the home became the universitas magistrorum 
et scholarium (or discipulorum) .^ As early as 1190, the schools at 
Oxford are called the cominune studium litterarmn, a synonym, ap- 

>See Table 1. •Article, "Universities,'* in Ency. Brit, 11th Ed. 

13 



14 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

parently, for studium generale^ a common name for a school open to 
all comers from any nation.^ 

Next to the influence of the personality and home of the teacher the 
incipient uniA^ersity was^haped by the regulations of the guild, " the 
medieval trades union," with its close organization, oaths and laws 
of promotion. The regulations of the trades union were applied for 
admission and for the gradation of apprentices and master work- 
men with their degrees. Like the journeyman of any trade, the mas- 
ter of arts by producing his masterpiece proved himself competent 
to teach.^ 

The local ruling masters {regentes) in the schools, and the expe- 
rienced teacher {doctor)^ or those applying their doctrine in the 
practice of the professions, might attain the grade or degree of doctor. 
The church, which in its cathedral schools and monasteries had 
kept learning alive, spread its blessing and authority over the rising 
schools. The chancellor of the neighboring bishop, the usual head of 
the cathedral school, became the natural head of the university. The 
teachers belonged to the clergy. The church lent to the young uni- 
versities not only of its privileges and of its ecclesiastical organiza- 
tion but also of its spirituality. Men consecrated by holy church, not 
only in religious brotherhoods but also in a clergy devoted to secular 
subjects, imparted a spirit of consecration to university learning. 
They created a line of professors to be known as the priesthood of 
truth. Their institutions were for all time differentiated from trade 
schools ; their true students had to be the chosen few, men of a voca- 
tion, not of an avocation. 

In the latter half of the thirteenth century and in the early four- 
teenth century, the monasteries and orders, especially the Franciscans 
and Dominicans at Cambridge, contributed their influence. The 
foundation of the colleges at the same time preserved the independ- 
ence of the university, aided by certain royal and ecclesiastical fac- 
tors. Some of the colleges, like Merton, prohibited the admission of 
the " religious," or monastic, as contradistinguished from the secular 
clerics. The church and the orders in their first days of gospel fervor 
impregnated the universities with a religious spirit. The rise of the 
colleges, combining the idea of the family, consisting of the masters, 
fellows, and scholars, with that of the fraternity of the monastic 
orders with their vows of poverty, obedience, and celibacy, has made 
character building the fundamental aim of college life. Except for 
these essentials of Christian character and brotherhood, and the 
architectural feature of the cloister in the quadrangle or court of the 
college, contrary to the popular opinion, the college was not monastic 

1 Holland, T. E., " The Origin of the University of Oxford," Eng. Hist. Rev., Apr., 
1891. 
« Wells, J., " Oxford and Its Colleges," p. 11, Methuen & Co., 1910. 



OXFOED, CAMBEIDGE, DURHAM. 15 

and even became antimonastic. The college provided instruction out- 
side the curriculum of the monastic or cathedral schools. It must be 
added, however, that the orders stimulated scholasticism, which not 
only has entrenched theology in a central position as the highest 
faculty to the present day but has also given a fine predominance to 
philosophy. 

The state became another godmother to the youthful universities, 
and with the growth of nationalism, not second to the church. Nat- 
urally, students from the same locality formed " nations " for mutual 
protectiouj after the analogy of the guilds of aliens in foreign cities. 
Oxford had its northern and its southern nation. The organized 
opposition of the students to the city authorities, due sometimes to 
the imposition by the citizens of high rents and prices for food, and 
sometimes to the misdemeanors of the students, resulted ultimately 
in the establishment of university courts, independent of local juris- 
diction, by a series of royal charters. The magna charta of academic 
freedom at Oxford and Cambridge has been dated from 1231, when 
Henry III decreed for both the universities that the rents should be 
fixed, secundum consuetudlnem universitatis, by two masters of the 
university and two citizens.^ To this day Oxford appoints a clerk 
of the market, and both the universities are represented in the city 
councils. In general, popes and the church confirmed the privileges 
of the universities. Probably by the end of the fourteenth century 
the word " university " began to be used without qualification for a 
community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had 
been sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority, or by both.^ 
The universities owe their autonomy and national spirit primarily 
to the state. They attained recognition as national institutions when, 
under Elizabeth, an act of Parliament (1571) confirmed them in 
their possessions and privileges, and later when James I gave them 
representation in the House of Commons, which even the present 
proposed bill for the abolition of plural voting does not repeal. 
They have kept pace with the development of the nation into an 
Empire by the affiliation of the colonial universities. In congrega- 
tion at Oxford a speaker declared that the university was not only 
national, but imperial and international. The leadership in church 
and state for 700 years has been in the small band of graduates of 
the two " varsities," an infinitesimal number in proportion to the 
population. A German is constrained to testify that, in the period 
just passing, the class which has ruled and been representative of 
England, to which England has owed essentially its fame and signifi- 

» Minerva, " Handbuch der Gelehrten Welt," Strassburg, 1911, p. 216. 
•Denlfle, Helnrieh Suso, ■• Die Universitaten des Mittelalters bis 1400," Berlin, 1885, 
Vol. I. pp. 1-29. 



16 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

cance, was really the fruit of academic education, of academic 
studies, and academic life,^ 

There is something educative, as is commonly remarked, in the 
very antiquity of tne universities. The passing stranger and the 
careless freshman have their horizon, at least momentarily, broad- 
ened by a glimpse of the monuments of many centuries, overtopping 
our self-conscious and boastful century. 

"And strange enchantments of the past 
And memories of the days of old " 

steal over them. The American, with his at best " modern antiqui- 
ties," can not transport these genuine antiquities, but he can import 
their historical associations, which are also his inheritance. 

His institutions should gather and preserve in their historical 
perspective the spirit of the studies and > truth of the movements 
which successively dominated the ancient universities. He must 
remember scholasticism, Catholicism, Wyclifism, humanism, Angli- 
canism, Puritanism, Neoplatonism, not to mention the revival of 
natural science at Cambridge by Isaac Newton, the beginnings of 
textual criticism by Bentley, or the modern religious movements at 
Oxford of the Wesleys, of Pusey, and of Maurice, and fresh im- 
pulses in history, economics, and art by Oxford men like Arnold, 
Froude, Freeman, Green, Ruskin, and Morris. 

The coalescence of the above historical influences will enable us to 
approximate the idea of the older universities as something im- 
measurably higher than the common characteristics seized by the 
casual observer. The latter is represented by the American pro- 
fessor who summed up the characteristics of Oxford and Cambridge 
under the three heads of the collegiate system, the tutorial instruc- 
tion, and the long vacations. The university is in its broadest sense 
a spiritual (as the Germans say, a geistlich) institution. The great- 
ness of the difficulty in grasping the notion of Oxford so appeals to 
some American college presidents, troubled because there is not a 
larger number of candidates for Rhodes scholarships, that they have 
asked the Rhodes trust to set forth the advantages of Oxford in a 
way that will be comprehended by the American student. The task 
will be a hard one for the trust so long as the American student is 
reared without knowledge of foreign institutions and flooded with 
flambuoyant advertisement of home colleges promising him a short 
cut to education which will quickly pay him in dollars and cents. 
Perhaps the university idea can be caught through quotations from 
some English authorities. Dr. Tanner, testifying before the royal 
commission on the civil service, cites two short paragraphs as sum- 



» Huber, " Die engUscben Universitaten," voL 2, p. 42. 



OXFORD^ CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 17 

ming up the opinion of the university senate on the general character 
and value of education given at Cambridge. One is : 

The principle of freedom of choice, the wide range of t+udy, and the character 
of the teaching, botli literary and scientific, which is accessible to the students 
provide for the excellence and variety of their intellectual training. 

The other is: 

As regards the development of character, the conditions of life in the uni- 
versity and colleges are in a high degree favorable.^ 

The answer of the hebdomadal council of the University of Oxford 
was reflected in the opinion of the then Vice Chancellor Heberden : 

A university education teaches a man to think for himself, and I should like 
to add that that is an education which takes a long time. I think that you 
must have some years after a boy leaves school if you are really to develop 
his mind to the fullest extent, and in particular to teach him to think for 
himself. I think that combination of very big subjects, together with a great 
deal of very highly organized teaching, is what constitutes the benefits of a 
university education from an intellectual point of view.' 

Lord Haldane in various ringing addresses brings out the thought 
of the corporate spirit of university life made manifest in " The Dedi- 
cated Life " of teacher and student and " the passion for excellence." ' 

Lord Bryce says : 

There has been created in Oxford and Cambridge that impalpable thing 
which we call " atmosphere," an intellectual and social tone which forms man- 
ners and refines taste and strengthens character by traditions inherited from 
a long and splendid past.* 

A writer in the Edinburgh Review states: 

The idea of a university reaches far beyond a varied supply of professional 
training, the prodigal granting of degrees, the anxious encouragement of 
research and the politic performance of educational contracts. A university is 
something more than an engine of utility or a product of organization. The 
essence of a university is a spirit, a principle of life and energy, an influence. 
And that influence must be impoverished and robbed of efficacy if, owing to 
want of means, or want of ideas, or want of freedom, a university falls short 
of the great end of its being, that of caring for the spirit and mind of man 
regardless of considerations of utility.* 

The same author adds: 

What is a university? Most men would perhaps face with a more tranquil 
courage the task of defining a dreadnaught, which baffles " The Times," or 
that of defining the duties of an archdeacon, which once baffled the House of 
Lords. We may hold with Cardinal Newman that the true function of a 

1 Royal commission on the civil service. Minutes of evidence, 1913, p. 37. 

2 Ibid., p. 47. 

8 " The Dedicated Life," address to students of University of Edinburgh, 1907. 
* " University and Historical Addresses " delivered during a residence in the United 
States as ambassador of Great Britain. Macmillan, 1913, p. 159. 
•Edinburgh Rev., Jan., 1911, p. .58. 

89687°— Bull. IG— 17 2 



18 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

university is to impart liberal culture, or with Huxley that a university should 
be a factory of new knowledge. But whatever our idea of a university may 
be, whatever theory of university education we adopt, whether we hold that 
it should aim at a complete training of the faculties or that it should prepare 
the student for the pursuits of later life, we shall no more conceive of a 
university in chains.^ 

The American inheritance of this idea of the English university 
appeared in the words of President Wilson, when at Princeton : " I 
believe general training, with no particular training in view, to be 
the very heart and essence of university training." Instead of u 
university department store, where each student came to purcha«5e 
a certain definite commodity, he pictured as his ideal one with the 
twofold object of " the production of a great body of informed and 
thoughtful men and the production of a small body of trained 
scholars and investigators," and these two functions were " not to be 
performed separately but side by side and informed with one spirit, 
the spirit of enlightenment."^ 

The two important points in the. history of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, the foci which have determined the ellipses of their peculiar 
orbits, are the sole degree-conferring power of the university proper, 
and the foundation of the corporate residential colleges. By the 
beginning of the fourteenth century jurists recognized as the es- 
sence of a university the privilege of conferring through its degrees 
the right of teaching not only in its own jurisdiction, but everywhere 
(jus uhicunque docendi). From that time no new university could 
acquire the right without a papal bull or a royal charter. One of the 
glories of these universities commonly overlooked is that they sprang 
from the people. Without bull or royal charter the jurists were 
forced to recognize them as studia generalia ex consuetudine. Lord 
Bryce puts it well: 

These universities were not founded by any public authority, but founded 
themselves, springing up naturally out of the desire for knowledge; and hence 
we in England describe our two universities of Oxford arrd Cambridge as being 
" corporations at common law," i. e., deriving their legal quality as corporate 
bodies from ancient custom which antedates the time of legal memory.* 

The retention of the power by the university only* to confer de- 
grees preserved it alive during the dominance of the colleges from 
the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, and has been the point of 
departure for the recent vigorous development of the university in 
contradistinction to the colleges. If this tradition had been followed 
in the United States, how many abuses and degree-spawning institu- 
tions might have been escaped. 

1 Edinburgh Rev., Jan., 1911, p. 68. 

* World's Work, Jan., 1908, p. 9795. 
•University and Hist. Addresses, supra, p. 154. 

* One or two colleges at Oxford and Cambridge are said to have a dormant right to 
confer degrees. The affiliated college of St. David's, Lampeter, may confer the degrees 
of B. A. and B. D. 



OXFOED, CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 19 

In the thirteenth century the number and poverty of teachers and 
students, improperly housed and supported, appealed to pious bene- 
factors like Walter de Merton. His tomb in Eochester Cathedral 
reads, " Founder by example Omnium quot-quot C ollegioruTn^'' He 
had the first real idea of a college as an endowed self-governing and 
self-disciplining community of scholars in their own house. The 
statutes (1264) of Merton College became the model for colleges in 
both Oxford and Cambridge. In time the colleges decentralized the 
universities and indeed changed their system of education. They 
have brought about the idea that a university is merely a multiplica- 
tion of colleges and its definition as a "collection of institutions of 
learning at a common center."^ 

The intricacy in scope of organization and operation of Oxford 
and Cambridge may be represented by seven concentrate spheres. 
At the center the specific university with its own funds and property, 
professors, readers, lecturers, examiners, boards of studies, certain 
powers of discipline, and the sole power of conferring degrees. It 
awards certain university scholarships, studentships, and prizes. It 
administers some 30 libraries, museums, laboratories, and workshops, 
and observatories in each.^ 

The second sphere consists of the autonomous colleges, with their 
own property and government, which are incorporated in the uni- 
versity. The 21 of these colleges at Oxford and the 17 at Cambridge, 
with imposing buildings and old-world gardens, make the few uni- 
versity structures inconspicuous, and become the visible university 
to the casual observer. 

The third sphere consists of colleges, halls, and hostels, not in- 
corporated in the university, some with semiofficial and others with 
scarcely a recognized relation to the university.^ 

The fourth sphere is represented by the University Press, an 
important and profitable agency at each university, managed by the 
university with even pecuniary profit, though its prime object is the 
promotion and diffusion of learning. Despite jealous attacks in the 
sixteenth century and after, from the newly incorporated stationers 
company in London,* and the vigorous competition of the great pub- 
lishing houses of the present day, the University Press, at Oxford 

* Cf. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159. 

* In the university, apart from similar institutions in the colleges, there are approxi- 
mately at Oxford 9 libraries, 2 large museums, 14 laboratories, and 2 observatories ; 
at Cambridge 14 libraries, 2 large museums, 13 laboratories, and 2 observatories. 

* Of these there are 18 at Oxford : St. Edmund Hall, 3 private hostels, group of non- 
college students, group of training college students, the 5 theological institutions 
(Wyclifife Hall, Pusey House, St. Stephen's House, Mansfield College, Manchester Col- 
lege), 6 vromen's colleges and societies, and Ruskin College (Cf. Ch. XIX, pp. 251-52). 
At Cambridge there are 11 : Selwyn College, Fitzwilliam Hall for noncollegiates, 1 train- 
ing college for men and 1 for women, 5 theological institutions (Ridley Hall, Westcott 
House, Westminster College, Cheshunt College, St. Edmund's House), 2 women's colleges. 

* " A Short Note on the Cambridge University Press," 1911, p. 8. 



20 HIGHEB EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

through the gift of Clarendon, and at Cambridge of Pitt and others, 
has been kept independent of mercenary motives and maintained 
scholarly standards. They have made a university press a mark of 
a first-class university as distinguished from a collegiate institution, 
and herein are teaching a valuable lesson to their American sisters. 
The stimulation in the teaching staff of the spirit of research and 
publication rounds out the fourfold function of a university to 
preserve knowledge, to teach men, to advance truth, and to diffuse it. 

The first four spheres are intramural or at least local. The press 
connects them with the three extramural spheres of the university's 
activities. 

The first is that of the examinations, local and higher and school, 
conducted outside the university, and the inspection of schools.^ 
Herein the universities recognize their obligation to the entire field of 
education, and in the inspection of schools their natural position as 
the apex of a school system still in the process of formation. 

The second extramural sphere is that of university extension re- 
cently notably varied in the formation of tutorial classes.- In this 
direct instruction of the populace in immediate cooperation with 
the industrial classes the universities respond to the demands of 
modern democracy. Herein is popular proof of their nationalism. 

The seventh concentric sphere, the third extramural one, is that of 
affiliated universities throughout the Empire and of certain recog- 
nized institutions beyond its bounds. The Universities of Oxford, 
Cambridge, and Dublin have the most intimate relationship, by 
which the members of these universities have the privilege of " incor- 
poration," i. e., under certain conditions they may be admitted to the 
same status and degree which they hold in their own university.^ 
Affiliated institutions are the universities and some university colleges 
in the United Kingdom and certain Indian, colonial, and foreign in- 
stitutions, including some 20 in the United States. Members of these 
institutions may be admitted to the universities with exemption from 
admission, and on certain conditions from some advanced, examina- 
tions and with the privilege of proceeding to the B. A. degree in 
two years.* In this sphere one sees the imperial and the international 
outreach which the Empire builder, Rhodes, recognized. By his 
scholarships at Oxford he sought to strengthen these features, and 
by awarding them to Germany as well as to America he hoped to 
promote a Teutonic university leadership for the federation of the 
world.^ 

1 Cf . Ch. XVI, " Examinations," p. 223. 

2 Cf. Ch. XIX, " University Extension Teaching," p. 249. 

3 Oxford Unlrersity Handbooli, Clarendon Press, 1912, p. 22 ; the Student's Handbool^ 
to the University and Colleges of Cambridge, University Press, 1912, p. 42. 

* Oxford Handbook, supra, Ch. XI ; Cambridge Handbook, supra, pp. 306, 313. 
•Cf., p. 40. 



OXFORD^ CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 21 

The vast network of the organized activities of the universities 
that have been depicted may give some idea of their extent and con- 
tent but fails in expressing their influence. The positions of influence 
their graduates occupy in church, state, and society are reinforced by 
the practical ramifications of the universities in their representation 
in the governing boards and faculties of schools, colleges, and uni- 
versities, and boards of education. They may be said to leaven 
the educational lump. 

This conception of the ancient universities, "so historical in 
their character and so majestic in their influence," runs counter to 
a widely spread American and English notion of them as decrepit 
and retrograde, a notion not without some basis in fact, as a long line 
of university reformers testifies. The lofty conception, however, has 
well been made the point of departure for the latest campaign of 
reform by Lord Curzon, of Kedleston, the present chancellor of 
Oxford.^ He writes: 

A fourfold duty lies upon it [Oxford] : To provide the best teaching over 
the entire field of knowledge of which its own resources and the progress of 
science may admit; to offer this teaching to the widest range of students; to 
mold and shape them not merely by the training of intellect, but by the disci- 
pline of spirit, so that, wherever they go, they may be worthy citizens or worthy 
servants of the state; and to extend by original inquiry the frontiers of 
learning. In other words, we desire that Oxford should supply a focus of 
culture, a school of character, and a nursery of thought. Always a responsible, 
this has become a doubly momentous task since, by the endowment of the late 
Cecil Rhodes, Oxford has opened its gates to the Empire and to the world, as 
well as to the nation ; and since whole classes of the nation hitherto excluded 
or dormant are now themselves knocking for admission. At such a time we 
may well review our own position, endeavor to sweep away any obstacles that 
impede our progress, and start again, reinvigorated, upon our path. 

Lord Curzon summarizes his main objects of reform as follows: 

(i) To strengthen and popularize the internal government of the university; 
(2) to fortify the authority of the latter in the control of its own teachers and 
teaching, with due regard to the rights and interests of the colleges; (3) to 
remodel the conditions of entrance, so as at the same time to furnish a moderate 
test of educational fitness, and yet not to exclude those who are unable to pur- 
sue the study of Greek; * (4) to provide for the distribution of academic endow- 
ments with relation to the requirements of the university; (5) the encourage- 
ment of advanced study ; (6) and the needs of poor men ; (7) to facilitate by all 
reasonable means the admission of the last-named class to Oxford; (8) and to 
create a better system of financial accounts and financial control.* 

^ Curzon, Lord, of Kedleston, chancellor of the university, " Principles and Methods of 
University Reform," Clarendon Press, 1909, p. 2\0. 

8Cf. Ch. XVI, "Examinations," pp. 230-231. 

• Principles and Methods of University Reform, being a letter addressed to the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, report of the hebdomadal council, with an Introduction submitted on 
behalf of the council by Lord Curzon, of Kedleston, chanaellor of the university, Claren- 
don Press, 1910, p. vll. 



22 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

During the 16 months succeeding Lord Curzon's "letter," at Ox- 
ford facetiously called " the scarlet letter," as it was bound in red, 
the hebdomadal council, or committees of it, held 128 sittings, over 
many of which the chancellor presided in person, and brought in nine 
reports along the lines of the chancellor's recommendations. After 
five years the objects of two or three of these reports have been accom- 
plished. Congregation has been converted from a body of resident 
graduates in Oxford into one consisting of the teaching and adminis- 
trative elements in the university and the colleges. The next step 
restoring to the administrative and teaching staff powers in educa- 
tional matters was the constitution of a general board of faculties. 
Other important educational advances have been provisions for the 
granting of certificates in letters and science to women, for certifi- 
cates in French and German, and establishing a school in modern 
history. The setting up of the finance board is a powerful instru- 
ment for the unifying and development of the central university. 
Its duties are to review annually the published accounts of the univer- 
sity and of all its institutions, including the public accounts of the 
several colleges ; to prepare annually a statement for council showing 
total receipts and expenditures; and especially to exercise advisory 
powers for the council and governing bodies even of the colleges. 

There has been a distinct defeat of the scheme for the substitution 
of an entrance examination for " responsions " or a modification of 
" responsions " and the abolition of compulsory Greek and of a measure 
for a diploma in commerce. No changes have been effected with 
reference to the admission of poor students to college scholarships, 
exhibitions, and fellowships, or the lengthening of the academical 
year. The chancellor's suggestion for what he called " the final eman- 
cipation of the theological faculty and degrees," by the abolition of 
the last survival of the ecclesiastical test requiring membership in 
the established church, was carried through council and congregation. 
Its rejection by convocation created such a sensation that the question 
was raised in the Hous3 of Commons of the appointment of a royal 
commission on the universities. At that time the prime minister 
stated that he greatly deplored the recent decision of convocation. 
" He had, though reluctantly, come to the conclusion that in the 
existing circumstances the setting up of such an inquiry might lead 
to delay in the prosecution of necessary reforms, and not be likely 
to be productive of fruitful consequences." ^ The strength of feeling 
behind the admission that there are " necessary reforms " may be 
gathered from vehement expressions from widely different sources. 
Lord Curzon had written: 

We are told that Oxford is a place where the standard of living is high, and 
that of learning low ; that it is the resort of idlers and loafers ; that its 

^Tbe Times, May 6 and 8, 1913. 



OXFORD^ CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 23 

endowments, intended for the poor, are wasted upon those who do not require 
them ; that it is out of touch with the main system of national education, of 
which it ought to be the apex and crown ; and that it is in fact the university 
of the leisured classes instead of the nation. Even Bishop Gore did not shrinli 
from describing it in the House of Lords as " a playground for the sons of 
the wealthier classes," and as not in any serious sense a place of study at all.* 

At a conference of trades unions and other societies opinions were 
expressed to the following effect: Little faith is put in the educa- 
tional program of the Government so long as it refuses the request 
of the parliamentary committee of the trades union congress to call 
a royal commission for the purpose of inquiring into the question 
of university endowment.^ The necessity was urged to push forward 
two reforms simultaneously ; on the one hand to open the universities 
equally to all classes, on the other to reform the curriculum so as to 
make the benefits of a university education as great as possible. The 
question was asked if the university endowment had not been robbed 
from the working class, and it was answered that the ancient endow- 
ments for education to some extent had been plundered at the time 
of the Reformation, and subsequently the benefit that remained had 
been almost entirely monopolized by the wealthy class.^ 

The feeling for the necessity of reform has been intensified in 
academic circles by the defeat in congregation at Oxford (June 16, 
1914) of a form of statutes extending the option of subjects which 
may be offered in " responsions," and providing that the examina- 
tions should be conducted by the delegates for the inspection and 
examination of the schools.^ The attempt to deal with the urgent 
problem of correlating the universities with the secondary schools 
and to broaden the avenue of approach to the university for all 
classes of students is involved. The hint is given looking to a royal 
commission that " if the universities can not do this of themselves 
it is likely that it will be done for them. In any case, the matter can 
not be left where it stands."* The present is the culmination of the 
large powers given to the universities to reform themselves from 
within by the parliamentary act of 1877 and its commission of 1882. 
The slowness with which the universities have moved has stirred up 
groups of reformers in each of them. Doubtless they have been the 
occasion of the recent movements. Lord Curzon, when a new 
chancellor visiting Oxford in 1907, testified that hearing many opin- 
ions in the university he was led to think that he might be of some 
use in coordinating the plans that were in the air.^ This reference 

* Curzon, Lord, " Principles and Methods of University Reform," p. 42. 

2 Report of the conference of trades unions, etc., held at Newcastle on Tyne, Apr. 15, 
1913. Co-op. Printing Soc. (Ltd.) London, pp. 6-9. 
»Cf. Ch. XVI, " ExamiqatioBS." p. 230. 

* Daily Telegraph, June 30, 1914. 

* Curzon, Lord, " Principles and Methods of University Reform," Bupra, p. 11. 



24 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

is doubtless suggestive even of organized clubs for reform at both 
of the universities, and perhaps particularly of the club of which 
we learn in the Life of F. York Powell/ then student of Christ 
Church, and afterward regius professor of modern history. At a 
meeting held in Exeter College in 1889, he presented the main points 
of the program for the the society to maintain the character of the 
university as a home of learning and science. The members were to 
take the professorial as distinct from the tutorial view, and the 
university as distinct from the college, in questions of education. 
They were to aim to have the examination system kept within limits 
rather than extended; to have the Bodleian Library managed as a 
place of study and research; to act on academical, not on purely 
political, grounds in voting for council, etc. In 1905 the immediate 
program for the club dwelt upon consideration of steps to coordinate 
university and college claims, especially in respect of science teach- 
ing and laboratories, in accordance with suggestions by Prof. Gotch. 
When Bishop Gore, in the House of Lords, moved for a new uni- 
versity commission, to the surprise of the universities, a letter ap- 
peared in The Times (July 24, 1907) declaring that many senior 
members of the university as well as younger graduates held the 
following opinions: 

(1) That the constitution and machinery of Oxford, both legislative and 
executive, need revision. (2) That the relations between the university and 
the colleges, both constitutional and financial, require modification. (3) That 
a central direction of our studies is required, enabling the faculties to have 
the authority assigned to them in other seats of learning. (4) That the 
studies of the university are themselves too narrow in scope, and that fresh 
endowments of various branches of study are necessary, and especially that 
a greater encouragement should be given to research, which at Oxford is 
probably to a larger extent divorced from teaching than in any other university. 

They assert: 

Attempts to reform from within have again and again proved abortive, 
owing to our present constitution, which can only be modified by legislation. 
We therefore consider that either a fresh commission or, if that suffices, legis- 
lation by the King in council, as contemplated by the last commission, are 
the only practical ways of carrying out the necessary changes. 

Despite the focussing of the agitation for reform by the chancellor's 
letter of 1909 and the reports of the council in 1910, the progress 
was so slow that, according to The Times, a memorial was presented 
to the chancellor in May, 1912, in favor of a royal commission. The 
general argument appeared to be that the inquiry which the uni- 
versity had conducted prepared the way for one of a more systematic 
and comprehensive character. An " outside " as compared with an 
*' inside " commission might be more impartial, though naturally the 

» Nettleshlp, Henry, " Life of York Powell," with preface by Farnell ; cf. Ch. XIX, 
" University Extension Teaching," p. 251. 



OXFORD^ CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 25 

reference of such a commission should be limited. The argument 
was pursued that the university is not a single corporation, but in 
many important points only an aggregate of some 20 more or less 
independent corporations, and in fact a university of colleges. That 
the university in order to be master in its own house would need 
to have a voice in the award of college fellowships and scholarships, 
in the adjustment of the action of the colleges to the needs of the 
university as a whole, and control over the admission and the resi- 
dence of students.^ Absolute power for the university was not sought. 
The college system was to be preserved as a characteristic and valu- 
able asset of the university. But it was urged that the system had 
" the defects of its qualities," and that it could not be expected that 
the colleges would be able to systematize themselves. The failure 
to come to an agreement with reference to fellowships and the rota- 
tion of scholarship examinations was proclaimed without exagger- 
ation to leave little less than a state of open war in the competition 
between Oxford and Cambridge colleges, and among the Oxford 
colleges themselves. It was said the freedom of the colleges was 
one thing, their anarchy was another. The waste and inefficiency 
were complained of, due to the duplication by the colleges of their 
equipment and laboratories without consideration of the needs of 
the university as a whole. Finally, in the view of the petitioners, 
the cumbrous and piecemeal machinery of university legislation 
needed to be complemented by a royal commission which could deal 
simultaneously with every part of the university as an organic whole. 
No attempt will be made to review the recent agitations for reform 
at Cambridge, dealing largely with the same problems as those at 
Oxford but not so publicly organized. In truth the modern history 
of university reform may be dated from the year 1800. In this 
year at Oxford was initiated the raising of standards of scholarship 
by the adoption of the new examination statute under the leadership 
of a great disciplinarian. Dean Jackson, of Christ Church, and at 
Cambridge the founding of Downing College, giving new emphasis 
to useful knowledge in conjunction with university culture. The 
literary revolution in England, the correlative of the French revo- 
lution, followed by the political reform issuing in the reform bill of 
1832, resulted in various actions and reactions in the universities. 
They were stirred by criticisms beginning in the Edinburgh Review 
in 1808, Throughout the nineteenth century, and especially after 
the royal commissions of the middle of the century, the universities 
have slowly but surely adjusted themselves to the demands of the re- 
formers. Indeed, it has been characteristic of them, when they did 
not lead an age, to conform to the demands of every age throughout 

» Cf. Ch. XVII, " Curricula," pp. 232-233. 



26 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

their long history, excepting in their period of stagnation in the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when they were dominated by 
the wealthy and aristocratic colleges. We have gone thus far into 
the subject of university reform because of the sidelights it throws 
upon our present-day problems, many of which are ever old and 
ever new. The excursion may also give us a better interpretation of 
the universities and their scope. It is clear a wider meaning must 
be given to the phrase "university reform" than that of "making 
the universities as efficient teaching institutions as possible."^ 

While it may be conceded that the universities as they now exist 
are primarily teaching institutions, the long line of prophets of uni- 
versity reform have given it a broader meaning. They have seen the 
vision of an all-round university adding to the teaching and charac- 
ter training of the college, learning, research, the application and 
diffusion of knowledge, the service w^ithout distinction of class, of 
humanity, in all its units of social organization. The point of uni- 
A'ersity reform is to correlate and coordinate in the central university 
the seven spheres of activity to which we have earlier referred in the 
interest of the greatest economy and efficiency. 

The lessons for us are obvious — a university is different from a 
college not only in degree but in kind.^ A college in its sphere is 
no whit inferior to a university, and being of a different genus it 
should not attempt to be a miniature university. Its prime function 
is instruction and still, standing in loco parentis, character training 
in an atmosphere of generous culture. The original New England 
college, planted by Cambridge and Oxford graduates upon the model 
of the English college, then dominant in the university, with its 
vigorous offshoots in the Middle and Western States, perpetuated 
the best features of this type and has become a glorious characteristic 
of American education. Like its first parents, it has well maintained 
its independence. It now needs to learn from them that it should 
become a unit in an educational system related to the schools below it 
and federated with the universities above it. 

In the newer States, where it is still practicable, the independent 
colleges might well follow the Oxford and Cambridge model and 
plant themselves in the same town with the university. Where it is 
too late to do this, the spirit of the Oxford and Cambridge plan 
may be preserved not only by the colleges grouping themselves in 
college unions, according to their church or similar interests, but also 
by direct affiliation with universities. The isolated independent col- 
lege is an expensive and uneducational anomaly. If the American 
college can not be locally a part of the university, it needs, and the 
university needs, that it should be spiritually embodied with it. 

» Tillyard, A. I., " A History of University Reform," Cambridge, 1913, p. 292. 
» Cf . Ch. V, " Independent University Colleges," p. 130. 



OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 27 

The ideal of a liberal education for which the American college 
'stands is enforced by the example of all the British universities new 
and old in requiring the incorporation in the university of a liberal 
arts college. A university consisting only of professional schools 
would be a violation of the fundamental idea and unbroken tradition 
of a British university. The so-called superior faculties of theology, 
law, and medicine do not segregate themselves, but sit together with 
the various schools of the arts faculty in council and congregation. 
Their courses of study and their students are interspersed with those 
of the arts. The arts faculty does not deem itself inferior to the 
faculties superior in order of the time of their work. Its work is not 
demeaned by following its historical mission inter alia of being 
preparatory to professional studies. It rejoices to lay the broad 
foundation upon which rest the rising platforms of the pyramid of 
professional learning. 

The college as ah essential part of the university in Oxford, Cam- 
bridge, and Durham, impresses the lesson that many American uni- 
versities departing from the English tradition under the influence of 
continental institutions need to learn, namely, that character build- 
ing is an aim of education to the very end. Maturity and citizen- 
ship in the university do not absolve from law, but like every other 
citizenship must develop its manhood code of law and have a disci- 
pline to enforce it.^ The college shows that the best means to this 
end, which is reenforoed by the prominence to-day of the social ele- 
ment in education, is the provision of halls of residence.^ 

For any fair understanding, however, of the universities, two re- 
marks must be made. First, contrary to the general notion, the rela- 
tive poverty of the universities and their colleges as a whole hampers 
their advance. The productivity of their capital has decreased with 
the depreciation of their real estate investments and the increase of 
taxes. They are not able to redistribute their funds, locked up in 
trusts and earmarked for special purposes, so as to meet the chang- 
ing demands in education. Herein is a warning for the boards of 
investment of our newer institutions, and particularly for their bene- 
factors, not to tie up their gifts without giving discretion to govern- 
ing boards. It is a surprise to find in Britain that pecuniary needs 
induce a competition between universities and among colleges, and a 
fear of being undersold, which prevent an advance of standards of 
examinations. Notably the universities give the M. A. degree with- 
out any academic requirements, because they feel they can not afford 
the loss of income from fees. Likewise the need of the charges to 
keep the names of graduates on the university books and the college 
boards halts the changes widely advocated in convocation. 

1 Cf. Ch. XVIII, " student Life," pp. 240-242. 
•Ibid., pp. 244-46. 



28 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Second, the source of the student constituency affects the entire 
complexion of the universities. For several centuries the nobility, 
the professional, and upper-middle classes through the training of 
the famous " public schools " supplied the undergraduates. The 
peculiar glory of English education and the dominant factor in the. 
undergraduate life of the universities has been the " public school," 
with its classical and character training, modeled from the close of 
the fourteenth century upon William of Wykeham's college at Win- 
chester, which was specifically to train for the university. The 
spirit of Wykeham's motto, " Manners makyth man," has taken pos- 
session of all the "public schools," and through them of the uni- 
versity colleges. 

There are about 600 of these schools, of three or four different 
types, in the incorporated Association of Head Masters. Some hun- 
dred of the great and older " public schools," like Winchester and 
Eton, because they send so many boys to the older universities, group 
themselves in the Head Masters' Conference. Of the remaining 500 
schools, some are ancient grammar schools, some are smaller board- 
ing schools of more modern foundation, and some are great day 
schools, like St. Paul's. In addition to the continuance of the cus- 
toms and friendships of these schools among the undergraduates in 
the universities, there is the influence of their head masters upon the 
policies of the universities. The long period of study in these schools 
and the selection of sons of parents of social standing able to bear 
the considerable expense establish a corresponding and costly style of 
living in the university. This fact gave ground for comment like 
that of the late Dr. Draper : 

American universities can not follow the British university with its narrow, 
purely classical, and purely English scholarship, which is studiously prevented 
from being broadened by that fatuous policy of the ruling classes which stub- 
bornly refuses the organization of all secondary schools through which the only 
people who can broaden it may come to the university at all.^ 

The grounds upon which Dr. Draper's remarks rested have been 
rapidly shifting under the pressure of the series of educational acts, 
beginning with that for elementary education in 1870. Recent legis- 
lation, parliamentary and local, especially since the report of Lord 
Bryce's commission in 1895, has revivified certain ancient founda- 
tions, particularly " in grammar schools " as dual schools, and de- 
veloped municipal secondary schools. Thomas Arnold, at Eugby, in 
the first half of the nineteenth century had begun the reform of the 
" public schools " in morale, and in informing the instruction with 
the modern historical spirit. Further impelled by the advances of the 
material sciences these schools have added the modern to the ancient 

^ Draper, Andrew S., commissioner of education of State of New York, "American 
Education," Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1909, p. 193. 



OXFORD^ CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 29 

classical side. Before the act of 1870, Matthew Arnold, having 
caught in Germany the vision of the importance of the secondary 
school, was preparing the way for its spread in England. As a 
sequence of the above movements we have in 1912 on the roll of the 
" Incorporated Association of Head Masters " 552 head masters of 
secondary schools, in the broad sense of a school administered under 
a definite form of public or corporate control recognized by the board 
of education under regulations for secondary schools.^ 

The pupils of these schools are becoming a force second only to 
those of the " public schools " in their effect on the undergraduate 
life of the universities.^ Their modern traditions and their increas- 
ing numbers must tell. Of the total of 220 scholars and exhibition- 
ers entering Cambridge in 1911-12, only 84 came from the great 
"public schools," as compared with about 100 from the great day 
and various kinds of secondary schools.^ Other student movements 
changing the complexion of the universities, and tending to develop 
the university independent of the incorporated colleges, are the at- 
tendance of women,* the admission of Ehodes scholars by passing 
" responsions " apart from college examinations, and the increase of 
the sons of artisans, due to the agitation for the higher education of 
workingmen.^ 

At this point one is confronted by a standard view of the older 
universities that they are to remain unique to educate gentlemen in 
the sense of those of the leisured classes. They are not to be popular. 
They are to minister not only to " the quality," but to care chiefly for 
quality of scholarship and mind and not for average ability.® 

In short, as contrasted with the newer universities, they are not to 
be cheap, popular, or industrial. This view is fortified by the exist- 
ence of classes in England and is diffused ordinarily by foreign 
writers on English universities. Whatever element of truth is in 
these statements, which in certain aspects are certainly un-American, 
may they not contain a hint for the American college against excess 
of zeal in stimulating the attendance of inferior minds and the pro- 
duction of an educated proletariat ? 

It must be noted, however, that the two universities have presented 
evidence to the royal commission on the civil service that the sons 
of toil and poverty, with ability, have means provided to attend the 
university. They refer to assistance made by the local authority to 
the boy of real ability in the secondary school, and to the numerous 

1 Royal commission on the civil service, 1913, p. 128. 

2 Cf. Ch. XVIII, " Student Life," p. 240 ; Ch. XVII, " Curricula," p. 233. 

3 Royal commission on the civil service, 1913, p. 116. 
* Cf. Ch. VIII, " Women's Colleges," pp. 152-54. 

s Cf. Chs. XII, " State Aid and Visitation : " XIV, "Applied Science and Professional 
Education ;" XIX, " University Extension Teaching. 
8Cf. Ch. XVII, "Curricula," p. 236. 



30 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

scholarsliips and exhibitions available in the universities, to the 
amount of about $300,000 at Oxford and $235,000 at Cambridge, 
annually. Oxford awarded to students beginning residence in Oc- 
tober, 1911, entrance scholarships and exhibitions to the value of 
$118,360, and Cambridge to the value of $100,890. In addition, 
various helps are offered to men of slender means. The colleges 
reserve some cheaply rented rooms for poor men. Some colleges 
make reduced inclusive charges and by confidential arrangements 
gain reduced subscriptions to the more important undergraduate 
clubs. It is emphasized that at most colleges the tutors have a 
private fund to use at their discretion for loans to students who need 
help.^ The provision of discretionary funds to be dispensed in a 
confidential way to deserving and needy students, not by governing 
boards, but by heads of colleges or teachers in personal contact with 
the students, is a practice that should be greatly enlarged in the 
United States. Brasenose College, at Oxford, furnishes an illustra- 
tion of the care as well as the confidential way with which these 
funds should be dispensed. When men apply for certain valuable 
scholarships of $500 a year which are confined to men of limited 
means, a paper of questions is sent to the parent asking, " What is 
your professional income?" " What is your private income?" " How 
many children have you?" Strong emphasis is put upon having a 
fund in addition to scholarships from which grants of money are 
made privately — at any rate not after advertisement — to students in 
need of assistance." 

Amongst various changes proposed for scholarships, it is clear that 
at neither university will anything receive general favor that would 
make distinctions between classes resting solely on wealth. While 
these scholarships may be won by rich men, the majority of scholars 
are the sons of professional men usually of limited incomes. These 
points should commend some form of scholarship system to objectors 
against scholarships in American colleges. Despite some of the evils 
of competitive examinations and of rivalries between both schools 
find colleges the problem is the same on both sides of the Atlantic. 
This is a case in which Americans may perhaps wait upon the ex- 
periments made in England. The commission of 1850 thought that 
they had solved the difficulty by substituting open, with certain 
exceptions, for the close scholarships and exhibitions conferred from 
medieval times upon students from particular schools, localities, 
or families connected with the founders. The commission of 1877, 
retaining the open competition, moved in the direction of the 
equalization of the value of scholarships and of making exhibitions 

1 Royal commission on the civil service, 1913, pp. 114, 127. Of. Ch. XVIII, " Student 
Life," p. 244. 

* Royal commission on the civil service, 1913, pp. 48, 49. 



OXFOKD_, CAMBRIDGE^ DURHAM. 31 

on the whole eleemosynary. Various experiments are being tried 
and propositions considered by some colleges in conference. Success 
from the nature of the case will fully come only when there is con- 
certed action among the colleges and by the universities. American 
universities and colleges may well profit by this same suggestion of 
conference and agreement wdth reference to a scheme of scholarships. 

American donors of scholarships may well be taught not to tie 
up their funds too specifically by the freedom with which parlia- 
mentary commissions have redistributed the gifts of benefactors to 
meet the changing conditions of different ages. Nevertheless, at this 
moment complaints are made of the predominance of scholarships 
for the Greek and Latin classics and the meager provision for other 
subjects. In 1907-8 at Oxford, out of a total of 504 scholarships 
300 were for classics, and of a total of 230 exhibitions 120 were for 
classics.^ 

One of the oldest and most characteristic features of Oxford and 
Cambridge is the system of fellowships.^ The fellows were the 
graduates, just as the scholars were the imdergraduates, of the almost 
monastic medieval colleges. The founders of the fellowships in- 
tended them primarily for the advancement of learning and only 
incidentally for teaching. The royal commission in the middle of 
the nineteenth century found about 550 fellows at Oxford and about 
400 at Cambridge, appointed largely by favor, all necessarily celibates 
and in holy orders with a life tenure and mostly absentees from the 
university. They opened the fellowships to general competition, but 
the clerical and celibate restrictions and the life tenure remained 
until the reform of the commission of 1877 prevailed in the statutes 
of 1882. 

The last commission established four classes of fellowships : " Offi- 
cial or tutorial," held ex officio by members of the teaching and 
administrative staffs of the colleges; "professorial," held ex officio 
by professors of the university ; " research," tenable for seven years, 
but generally renewable on condition of undertaking some prescribed 
work of research, study, or service to the college or university, the 
stipend of these to be $1,000 annually, with certain college privi- 
leges ; " prize " fellowships, awarded after examination, free from 
any condition of work, tenable for seven years, and of the same 
value as the last class. The commissioners' statutes limited the num- 
ber of the first three classes and intended that about 170 " prize " 
fellowships should ultimately be provided at a cost of something 
like $175,000 per annum at Oxford.' The "prize" fellowships were 

1 Curzon, Lord, of Kedleston, " Principles and Methods, etc.," 1909, p. 77. 

2 Cf. Ch. XV, "Advanced Study and Research Without Graduate Schools," pp. 215-16. 

* Report of the hebdomadal council (Principles and Methods of University Reform), 
1910, pp. 76, 77. 



32 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

to be in fact, Lord Curzon says, " as the name indicates, the apotheosis 
of the theory that a fellowship is a reward of ability rather than a 
condition of service," and further a link, as Jowett believed, between 
the residents of Oxford and the outside world. The expectations 
concerning the " prize " fellowships it is generally agreed have 
failed of realization. The colleges have never begun to fill up the 
number, and on the whole the fellowships have become unfruitful 
sinecures. Substitutes for "prize " fellowships were recommended 
by the hebdomadal council in 1910, but they have not yet been 
adopted.^ 

For the general scheme and the bearing of the whole subject of 
fellowships we must refer to our chapter upon "Universities and 
Research" (p. 214). The lesson for Americans of the story of 
" prize " fellowships is that good and learned men, alas ! yield to the 
temptation of indolence without the pressure of some supervision, 
and that some residential requirements in and service of a university 
are desirable. By this inference it is not meant to say that there is 
not, in exceptional cases, room outside the universities for foundations 
to reward and employ ability in investigation and research, as in the 
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, or in the Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington, or State and municipal institutes and research 
laboratories. These establishments furnish the element of supervi- 
sion lacking in prize fellowships. Fellowships, an essential part in 
the ancient foundations of the colleges, strictly applied to the pro- 
motion of specific subjects, services, or persons, have undergone 
changes to meet the demands of the times. They have been shifted 
not only to make prize fellowships but to serve for pensions (see 
p. 186), for research, and very largely for part payment of teaching 
or other college work. The radical suggestion has even been made 
to abolish fellowships, retaining the title of fellow because of its 
historical associations and commercial value in the outside world.^ 
There is little likelihood of such a proposition being entertained in 
responsible quarters, but continued readjustments and coordinations 
of the fellowships may be anticipated.' Fellowships are the core of 
the colleges, not only historically and governmentally but at present 
actually, numbering approximately 400 at each of the universities 
and having an annual income apart from fees and other stipends 
estimated at each university as between $300,000 and $350,000.* The 
history of fellowships at the two universities justifies the widespread 
creation of fellowships in the newer universities of the English- 
speaking world. But warned by that same history, these universities 

1 Report of the hebdomadal council, 1910. pp. 84-88. Also cf. Tillyard, p. 335. 

2Tillyard, p. 339. 

■Cf. Curzon, pp. 93-100; also report of hebdomadal council, pp. 78-88. 

*Cf. Curzon, p. 96. Hillyard, p. 331. 



OXFORD. CAMBRinOE, DURHAM, 33 

ha\e felt the need to safeguard against favoritism in methods of 
appointment, to limit the tenure of office, to fix a just emolument, 
and to appeal to a love of learning and of public service while court- 
ing a reasonable degree of supervision. 

Thus far the two older universities have been treated in common. 
Nor is it desired now to any extent to differentiate them. Up to the 
last century Dollinger's remark held true: 

England, pursuing throughout its whole history the twofold aim of practical 
activity and political freedom and hostile to all centralization, has confined 
itself to two universities, two learned corporations which have preserved down 
to this day their republican constitution and autonomy. A single university 
would have become too exclusive, too much of a monopoly, and ultimately 
would have gone to sleep on the pillow of its privileges and traditionary honors. 
Hut the two watched each other a!id stimulated each other, and each of thein 
specially cherished one of the two main tendencies of the English mind — Oxford 
the ecclesiastical and the disciplines subserving this, Cambridge the mathemat- 
ical and more practical aims.i 

Attempts to differentiate Oxford and Cambridge by means of 
broad generalizations have been made by numerous Avriters as well 
as in current popular stories and phrases. Matthew Arnold named 
Cambridge the mother of great men, and Oxford of great move- 
ments. George Eliot said that at Cambridge everybody spoke well 
of everybody else ; at Oxford everybody criticized everybody. Lord 
Roseberry expressed it : 

Oxford and Cambridge impart, or did impart, a distinctive character to their 
men ; they liad a marked division in politics as well as in learning. Oxford had 
the traditional and reverential, Cambrid^ie the inquiring or testing spirit." 

President Thwing^ approaches the distinction by making Oxford 
and Cambridge one of the four classes into which he boldly divides 
the universities of the world, with the saving clause that the charac- 
teristK's of all four clas.ses are more or less in every university. In 
his first class he ]:)laces the German universities devoted to the dis- 
covery and publication of truth, to learning and scholarship, with 
libraries and laboratories as tools, and observation as their method. 
The universities in Scotland and the United States constitute the 
second class, whose primary purpose is the development of character 
through the power of thinking. Scholarship has a less dominant 
place. The aim is rather intellectual and ethical. In the third class 
are Oxford and Cambridge and certain American colleges. The real 
purpose, though not the object of public proclamation, is the making 

1 Dollinger's " Universitaten Jetzt und Sonst," in S. S. Laurie " Rise and Constitution 
oi Universities," 1888, pp. 244-245. 

2 Rosebery, Lord, " Ciiantellor's Address, University of Glasgow. 1908," MaeLchosc & 
Sons, Glasgow, p. 16. 

*Tbwing, Charles E'rankliu, " Universities of the World," Macniillan, lUll, p. xi, 

«)tiS7°— Bull. Itj— 17 -3 



34 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

of a gentleman in whom intellect, heart, conscience, will, and the 
;i?sthetic faculty are so blended that he becomes at home in any 
society. The imiversities of the P"ar East represent the fourth class, 
and here President Thwing Avould probably have inserted the newer 
universities Avhich train men of efficiency, graduates able to earn a 
living. This efficiency is like that of professional schools and schools 
of engineering, but of a liberalized sort, touched by the thought of 
living in large relations. President Thwing ^ notes some of the 
popular remarks. Oxford says, in depreciation, Cambridge is demo- 
cratic, but Cambridge takes it as a compliment. Cambridge says, 
deprecatingly, Oxford is ineffective, but Oxford takes it as a com- 
pliment. Oxford hugs Greek grammar closer than Cambridge, and 
Cambridge points to its Cavendish laboratory as the most significant 
place in scientific discipline in Britain. He adds the Oxford colleges 
are governed more by their heads and the Cambridge colleges by 
their fellows. 

The universities are hit off by many facetious remarks, such as, 
•' The Oxford man acts as if all the world belongs to him ; the Cam- 
bridge man as if he belonged to all the world." One Cambridge 
student shouted to another striding somewhat loftily across the 
court of Trinity, "Hi, where did you get that Oxford manner?" If 
one were to yield to the fascinating practice of making generaliza- 
tions, he might add many to the above. He might say Oxford is 
jirogressive-conservative, Cambridge is conservative-progressive. 
Oxford is preeminently classical, Cambridge is preeminently scien- 
tific. Oxford is philosophical, Cambridge is poetical. Oxford tends 
to make statesmen, Cambridge to make scholars. Oxford contributes 
leaders at home, Cambridge pioneers abroad. An American perhaps 
feeis more at home in Cambridge, because it uiay be more democratic. 
or because it is the mother of American colleges through the New 
England Cambridge. He can not forget, however, when in New 
England in the seventeenth centurv there was the highest proportion 
of university graduates to the population the world has ever know^n. 
besides Cambridge men there Avere " Oxford men not a few." An 
American visiting the universities back and forth, if asked which 
he likes the better, ma.y Avell rei^lv, •' The one I was at the last." 

The universities are the closest of friends, with a community of 
interests and of teachers consisting of graduates of the one or the 
other, rarely taking any step Avithout consideration of its effect on 
both institutions. There is a good-natured competition of the Chris- 
tian sort urged in the text, " Provoke one another to good works." 
There is care upon the part of one not to express an opinion about 
the other. Their independence through endoAvments, their self -gov - 



1 Thwing, Charles Franklin, " Universities of the World," Macmillan, 1911, pp. 10-12. 



OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 35 

eminent, their representation in Parliament, and weight of influence 
generally have made them almost a fourth estate in the realm. They 
make it clear that endowed and autonomous colleges have a place as 
counterweights to State institutions. Nor should it be forgotten in 
the States how influence has been heightened not only by the coopera- 
tion between the two universities, but also contrary to their earlier 
policies by association Avith the newer State-aided universities. 

Evidence is not lacking that Cambridge is conservative-progres- 
sive with progressive-conservative Oxford as a close second. The 
terms are used in a much broader sense than politically, though for 
years in parliamentary representation Oxford was predominantly 
Tory, and Cambridge Whig. Generally Cambridge has antedated 
Oxford in the introduction of new subjects of study, or the stressing 
of them in triposes known at Oxford as honor schools.^ Cambridge 
rounds out its dozen of triposes with the establishment of an anthro- 
pological tripos in 1913, this doubling the number of triposes since 
1875. Oxford has nine more or less correspondent honor schools, not 
counting as separate schools the eight subdivisions of the natural 
science schools.- The sole tripos at Cambridge until 1815 was the 
mathematical, and the honor school at Oxford still significantly 
known as "Greats" was Litterae humamores. In the beginning at 
Cambridge the ancient quadrivium seems to have had the upper 
hand, naturally preparing the way for the mathematical, natural, 
and applied sciences triposes. At Oxford the trivium similarly held 
sway, naturally tending to produce, as grammar largely meant Latin, 
the TJtterae huraamoves school and possibly the conservative spirit 
characterized in Browning's Grammarian. The multiplication of 
studies and the recognition of them in honors demonstrates the steady 
advance of the universities with the times, but ordinarily with Cam- 
bridge as the path-finder.^ 

The sensation of the year 1913 at the universities was the abolition 
of the last relic of ecclesiastical tests by the opening of the divinity 
degrees to all denominations at Cambridge and the defeat of a simi- 
lar measure at Oxford. While Cambridge has given the highest 

iCf. Ch. XVII, "Curricula," p. 234. 

2(l^Physics, (2) chemistry, (3) auimal physiology, (4) zoology, (.5) botany, (6) 
geology, (7) astronomy, (8) engineering science. 

' Omitting the original tripos or honors school, and taking them in their present 
form, their dates and succession would be approximately as they are hero given: 
1815, law, Cambridge; 1900, Oxford; 1824, classical, Cambridge (N. B., following the 
original mathematical as conversely at Oxford the mathematical followed the I.ittcra'; 
humanioree) ; 1851-1856, moral sciences, natural sciences, and the theological, Cam- 
bridge : natural science, 1853, law and modern history, 1873, modern history separate, 
1870, theological, Oxford; 1875, historical, Cambridge; 1878, Semitic languages. 1879, 
Indian languages, 1895, amalgamated in the oriental languages, Cambridge ; 1895, 
oriental studies uniting (earlier 1887) Indian and Semitic, Oxford ; 1886, medieval and 
modern languages, Cambridge ; 1896, English language and literature separate, Oxford ; 
1894. mechanical sciences, Cambridge ; 1903. modern European languages, Oxford ; 
1905, economics, Cambridge : 1913, anthropological, Cambridge. 



36 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

recognition to applied science, culminating in a mechanical sciences 
tripos since 1894, Oxford made engineering science the last of the 
eight subdivisions of the natural science honor school only three years 
ago. ' The preeminence of Oxford in Greek and Latin classics, 
philosophy and history is due to the dignity and distinction attached 
to the final classical school as compared with those given to the 
mathematical tripos in Cambridge. Cecil Rhodes furnishes an ex- 
ample 01 the fruits of the Oxford course in attributing the keynote 
of his life and the inspiration of his founding of his scholarships to 
the maxims of the Greek philosophers with which Oxford had 
imbued him. The Oxford record in no sense derogates from Cam- 
bridge's contribution to textual criticism and philology from the days 
of Bentley or to modern philosophy from the days of her great sons, 
Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton, and its school of neoplatonists. 

Oxford, more than once the royal capital and on the great high 
road to the north, possibly was better located to breed statesmen than 
Cambridge on a by-way into the fen country. If so, the quiet and 
dreamy horizon of the fens might bring a compensation favoring the 
rearing of poets. The fame of Spenser, Milton, Wordsworth, and 
Tennyson so adds to the luster of Cambridge that injustice may be 
done to Oxford, with its meadows, hills, and Matthew Arnold's and 
Clough's tree on the hill. 

The location of both the " rus-urban " university towns, of about 
50,000 inhabitants each, wonderfully picturesque with their meander- 
ing river banks and gardens, favors the leisure so desirable for the 
scholar and offers the beauty which appeals to the poet. A sense of 
the importance of picturesqueness of location with landscape, water- 
scape, and academic shade has so been conveyed to the most fortunate 
imiversities and colleges in the New World that an institution with- 
out a river, sea, or lake is almost inconceivable; and an institution 
can not rest until at least an artificial lake is made, as at Princeton. 
Even an Iowa farmer once said there could be no real university 
without the picturesque surrounding of hill, river, or wood, no 
matter how grand the expanse of prairie. 

Both imiversities in every generation have shown themselves 
" nests of singing birds." Let our American institutions in this age 
of science mark that science demands the creative imagination and 
poetry has its permanent place. Among the latest products of the 
universities are volumes of verse - of sufficient merit to vindicate the 
existence of a chair of poetry at Oxford. A critic says : 

Taking the Oxford and Cambridge volumes together, we feel that those 
persons who are anticipating a new renascence of poetry in England may take 

» Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 205. 
"Oxford Poetry (1910-1913), with an introduction by Gilbert Murray, Oxford. Black- 
well. Cambridge Poets (1900-1913), chosen by Alfrlda Tillyard, Cambridge, Hpffer. 



OXJ?\)i{D^ CAMbHJDGE, DURHAM. .17 

courage from what they hud in them. The Oxford poets bring evidence that 
the power of song is still alive among us ; and the Cambridge poets, who are 
more mature, show further that their wings are capable of sustained flight, 
while both bear striking witness that the motive influencing our young poets 
is a desire to express some mood or thought with sincerity, rather than to 
imitate any fashionable style.* 

The critic credits the Oxford poets with more singing quality than 
those of Cambridge, though with less sense of form. The critic 
attributes the greater sense of form to the maturity of the Cambridge 
writers, but one may well query if it is not due to the predominance 
there of philological and scientific studies. 

The pioneering spirit of Cambridge appears in its antedating 
Oxford in most of the extramural movements making for the 
nationalization of university influence. Both universities instituted 
local examinations in ISoS." The Oxford and Cambridge schools 
examinations board followed in 1873. University extension was 
formally launched by Cambridge in 1873 and taken up by tlie Lon- 
don society for university teaching in 187() and by Oxford in 1878.'' 
Corresponding to Cambridge's leadership in attention given to the 
( ducation of the masses is the recognition of women by the uni- 
versities.* The Cambridge local examiners began the informal ex- 
amination of girls in 18G3. and the local examinations were opened 
to them in 1805. Edinburgli and Durham followed in 18(56, but 
Oxford waited till 187U. (jirton, the first college for women at a 
university, settled itself at Cambridge in 1873, followed by Newn- 
ham Hall in 1875, both preceding the opening at Oxford in 1879 of 
Lady Margaret Hall and Somerville Hall. While both universities 
still withhold the degrees from women, Cambridge admitted them 
to degree examinations in honors in 1881-82, while it took Oxford 
fiom 1881-1890 to admit to all final honors schools. 

This slow but sure approach to coeducation may not only illus- 
trate the characteristics of the two universities, but may indicate a 
safe method of procedure for the solution of the same problem by 
tlie older American foundations. 

In the language of the economist one of the greatest of the modern 
questions for universities is the distribution of their products. 
• Oxford and Cambridge have already their labor bureaus, but they 
dignify them by the name. of 'appointments boards.'"^ This field 
was first entered by Cambridge in 1884 by the establishment of the 
scholastic agency to provide Cambridge men in search of scholastic 
appointments with a convenient and inexpensive means of obtaining 

> The Times literary supplement, Jan. 15, 1914. 

2 Cf. Ch. XVI, " Examinations," p. 228 ; ' Schools Examinations," pp. 224-225. 
» Cf. Ch. XIX, " University Extension Teaching," p. 249. 
* Cf. Ch. VIII, " Women's Colleges," pp. 151-152. 

" Brereton, Cloudesley, " Cooperation between School and Employer," Contempoi-ary 
R.v , Feb., 1914. 



38 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

them. It has also upened its register to other applicants without 
restriction of degree or place of education. Since its commencement 
it has received upon its books over 5,500. candidates. The business is 
conducted by a director and secretary under the control of a com- 
mittee of university officials and members of the staffs of the princi- 
pal colleges. With the object of promoting a scheme of life assurance 
for schoolmasters and clergymen, the agency in 1891 registered as a 
company under the Company's Act. The Cambridge University ap- 
pointments board in 1902 took over the work of the appointments 
association and is administered by a secretary and an assistant sec- 
letary. Past and present members of the university are eligible for 
registration. No candidate is accepted without a nomination either 
from a member of the board or from a tutor of his college, and 
personal interviews with the secretary are deemed essential. AVith- 
cut excluding scholastic appointments, the board has mainly in view 
appointments in the military, diplomatic, and civil services at home, 
in India, and in the colonies; in the professions of law, medicine, 
engineering, journalism, and literature; and in businesses, agricultural, 
commercial, and industrial. A noteworthy feature anticipating voca- 
tional training is a series of special articles on various employments 
which may help the reader to realize something of the extent of 
ground which the board tries to cover, published in its annual 
Appointments Gazette. 

The appointments board's rej)ort for 1912 shows rapid and steady 
progress. The number of appointments obtained by graduates on the 
introduction of the board was 315, as compared with 146 in 1907. 
The board already finds places for more than a quarter of the men 
who leave Cambridge annually. 

At Oxford it w^as not until 1907 that the university officially rec- 
ognized the appointments committee, which was founded in 1892. 
One of its most suggestive features for Americans is its consultative 
committee, consisting not only of representatives of all the colleges 
and of the noncollegiate delegacy, but also of co-opted members, 
nonresident representatives of some of the larger business interests. 
7he committee states that there is an increasing number of men who 
are anxious to take work outside the learned professions, and who 
appear to be qualified for such work, either by the possession of 
general ability or by interest in subjects closely connected with 
business and administration. Several business men of eminence and 
public spirit are serving on the committee. The importance attached 
to the committee and a point to be marked by the corresponding 
American bureau is the selection of an experienced secvetaiy. He i^ 
a mature graduate of one of the strongest colleges, with school and 
business experience, and for years private secretary of one of the 
most distinguished lords and cabinet ministers. From October to 



OXFORD, CAMBHinCE, DURHAM. 39 

May, inclusive, 1912-13, the conunittee registei'ed 671 candidates. 
The secretary received above 800 visitors, of whom 330 were candi- 
dates to whom special interviews were given. The appointments 
filled in 1912 were 179, of which 45 were in the civil service at home 
and abroad. The conunittee receives grants from the university and 
the colleges and charges only a nominal fee for registration and a 
small commission on appointments secured.^ 

Especially should the attention of the Federal and State Govern- 
ments and the universities and colleges be called to the intimate 
relations between the universities and the public services, to which 
entire chapters are given in the Handbooks of both universities. 
The royal commission on the civil service (1913) gave particular heed 
to the testimony of the representatives of the universities, with the 
design of correlating the civil-service examinations and the studies 
and examinations of the universities still more closely. For the 
higher civil services open competition, the civil-service commissioners 
and the universities cooperate in a scheme of subjects and marks. 
Both universities make provision for instruction in the subjects ac- 
cepted by the civil-service commissioners not only in the arrange- 
ment of their tripos or honor school courses but in special lectures. 
The board of Indian civil-service studies at Cambridge makes pro- 
vision for those selected candidates for the Indian civil service who 
pass their probationary year at Cambridge. The syllabus of the 
civil-service commissioners still applies the principles enunciated by 
Lord Macaulay's committee in 1851, viz, " that the object of the 
competition should be to secur^ for the Indian civil-service officers 
who 'have received the l)est, the most liberal, the most finished edu 
cation that their native country affords.'" 

Adding a list of public departments, not under the heading of the 
" higher civil service," which by some form of nomination or selec- 
tion send students to the universities at least for some part of their 
training, an American is made to realize the service of the universi- 
ties to the Em]:)ire.- If his universities are not to be provincial, and 
if the United States is to play its part among the world powers, the 



' On registration, 50 cts. On appointments (a) for two months or less, 3 per cent 
en salary received ; (5) for more than two months but less than a year, 1| per cent on 
the whole salary ; (c) for more than a year, li per cent on the first year's salary ; 
(d) for all appointments up to $2,000 per annum in Government service abroad, a 
si)ecial fee of $15.75. 

-The higher and other civil service include departments like the home and Indian 
civil services and the following suggestive list : Eastern cadetship in the colonial service 
clerkships in the Houses of Parliament : foreign office and diplomatic service ; student 
iuterpreterships for the Levant, Persia. Greece, Morocco, China, Japan, and Siam : 
consular service ; colonial service in Africa, Egyptian and Soudanese civil services ; 
Indian appointments in forestry, education, police. Stale railways, and customs ; colonial 
police for Ceylon, Hong Kong, Straits Settlements, Malay Straits, British Guiana. 
Trinidad, and Jamaica; the permanent service of Sarawak; British North Born.^o Co.; 
the board of education ; the British and other museums ; the Geological Survey ; Ire- 
land ecclesiastical commission and inland revenue, etc. 



40 HIGHEIJ EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

National and State Governments and the universities and colleges 
must come into a closer cooperation in the training of public servants. 

At Oxford the information was vouchsafed that at the present 
moment not less than 100 of the graduates under 30 years of age 
had gone directly from the university to administrative positions in 
the Crown colonies, and that the Government testified to their success 
in managing men. 

No wonder Corbin wrote, " The colleges of England have manned 
the British Empire." With this in view, it is easier to appreciate 
Cecil Rhodes's suggestions for the selection of scholars, whereby 
scholarship was to weigh only one-fourth in the marks, the other 
three-fourths being distributed among the possession of certain vir- 
tues, the power of leadership, and athletics, the latter as much a test 
of the spirit of fair play as of physical fitness. He distilled in his 
suggestions the essence of Oxford and Cambridge, with which he 
had been infused, and he proposed to diffuse it throughout the aca- 
demic life of Anglo-Saxondom, in which he included Germany, to 
prepare for the leadership of the world.^ 

Prolonged study of the older universities has been made necessary 
not only by what they are in themselves and what they have to teach, 
but also because they are the fountainhead of much of the university 
life yet to be taken up. Further, light has been gained upon a 
disputed question as to whether the imiversities are and ought to be 
stationary, as their enemies would put it, reactionary, devoted to 
a certain form of culture, or progressive, participating in modern 
movements. 

The record justifies the strong commendatory phrases the seA-ere 
critics have been constrained to make on the universities. Lord 
Curzon says: 

A greater injustice could not be done lo modern Oxford tlian to represent 
it as the liome of stationary forces or ideas * * *. Oxford is as capal)le now 
as ever — nay, more so — of fulfilling its traditional part as the focus of the 
best educational activities, the highest civic aspirations, and the most advanced 
thought of the age and the race.* 

Mr. Tillyard writes : 

It is not that Cambridge has gone back to the slumbers of the eighteenth 
century. On the contrary, it has made persistent and courageous efforts to 
adapt itself to modern conditions. Tlie last 50 years, and especially the last 
25 years, show a great increase in the number of subjects taught and of people 
to teach them.^ 

He emphasizes that men can be trained practically as physicians 
and surgeons, as engineers, as farmers, as teachers, and for the army, 

> Of. p. 20. 

2 Curzon, Lord, " Priuclples and Methods of University Reform," supra, p. 13. 
"Tillyard, A. I., "A History of Fniversity Reform." CamhTidge. 191.S. p. R->2. Cf. Oh. 
XVII, "Curricula," p 23.5. 



OXFOHl), OAMBRIDOK, DURHAM. 41 

and for the civil service at hoiue and abroad, and that opportunity 
is given for research students. He dwells upon the increase since 
1870 of the combined teaching stall' of the university and colleges to 
about 380, or about 1 teacher for every 10 undergraduates. He 
points out the multiplication of buildings and the expenditures upon 
them since 1882. He summarizes by saying, " Cambridge strives to 
teach all that a complicated modern society can demand to know." 

In conclusion, the ancient universities have been found to be not 
static but dynamic. They reveal that it is the nature of a university 
not only to preserve but to focus the truth of all the ages on the prob- 
lems of the present. 

DURHAM. 

Several Englishmen have been surprised that Durham should be 
grouped with Oxford and Cambridge, rather than with the newer 
English universities, since it was founded in 1832. In fact, in its 
Durham division it is an inchoate Oxford or Cambridge, the third 
of the ancient universities in England, brought forth after an inter- 
nal of 700 years as one born out of due time. In its Newcastle divi- 
sion it is an inchoate newer university, anticipating all the other 
new universities. Probably it has the most to teach America in its 
pioneering in modern federalism resulting in integial coordination 
of colleges in separate places.^ 

In its origin it is of the ancient type. There was a combination 
of religious and scholarly traditions, with a quasi national feeling. 
Durham, like Oxford, connects us with Anglo-Saxon times. The 
latter had its nucleus in the nunnery of St. Erideswide of the eighth 
century, the site of the present cathedral, the- chapel of Christ 
Church. The former is within the ])recincts of, and uses as its 
chapel, the cathedral with its shrines of St. Cuthbert and the Ven- 
erable Bede. The founding of University College, the senior college 
at Oxford, in the thirteenth century, one of the centers of the " north- 
ern nation," by William of Durham, is an early intimation that the 
" north countree " would one day have universities^of its own. 

By 1640 Manchester and York were seeking to be the seat of a 
neAv university, but Cromwell, with his eye upon the endowments of 
the cathedral, decided upon Durham. After the Eestoration the 
matter rested until the political agitation which culminated in the 
reform bill of 1832, uniting with the example of the wealthy bishops 
of the earlier centuries, persuaded the astute Bishop of Durham, Van 
Mildert, to devote $15,000 a year of the cathedral's princely revenues 
to the founding of the university. Like the older universities from 
the times of Queen Elizabeth and Archbishop Laud, it was to be the 

»Cf. Ch. XIII, "Coordination of Institutions," pp. 19.")-197. 



42 IIIGHEP, EDUCATION IN EXOLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

assured handmaid of the Church of England. The charter of 1837 
constituted a corporation by the name of " The Warden, Masters, and 
Scholars of the University of Durham," the admission to member- 
ship of the university to be in accordance with regulations established 
by the dean and chapter of Durham, with the consent of the lord 
bishop. From that day to this the University at Durham, as befits its 
location so Avell alluded to in its coat of arms, Fundamenta ejus super 
montihiis sanetus, has been a Zion of the Anglican church, especially 
resorted to by theological students. Though religious tests have 
been abolished except for theological degrees, the Bishop of Durham 
has been retained as visitor and the dean and members of the 
cathedral chapter as members of the senate, and the professorships 
of divinity and Greek continue annexed to the canonries. Ecclesias- 
ticism has not prevented a broad administration by which the uni- 
versity antedates the newer universities in the recognition of applied 
science by the affiliation of the colleges at Newcastle, and marks its 
departure from its Oxford and Cambridge pattern by its admission 
of women to degrees, excepting theological, in 1895. It made the 
signal event of the year 1914 the giving of the vote to women in 
convocation.' In kinship with the Oxford and Cambridge collegiate 
system, Uni\ersity College was founded with the university Avhere 
it is still housed in the castle with the baronial hall of the Palatine 
Prince-Bishops. The collegiate systeui, however, in the nineteenth 
century appears to be a survival. It did not develop at Durham 
except in an adaptation which preserves the social and residential 
element in the halls and hostels. The latter have multiplied, but 
have shown no tendency to develop into colleges.^ 

Clearly the literal reproduction of the Oxford and Cambridge Col- 
lege plan is not fitted, save in its essence, to modern times. The air 
of antiquity and the picturesquenes^ which Sir AValter Scott cele- 
brates in his lines to the " grey towers of Durham " unite it from its 
heights on the Weir to its sisters on the Cam and the Isis. Again 
we are reminded of the advantage of a river for university scenery 
and events. Theitraditions of English oarsmanship have been kept 
alive since the first regatta at Durhaui on the Weir in 1834. 

A visitor at Durham is impressed by the absence of laboratories, 
and herein is a likeness to Oxford and Cambridge in the first half of 
the ninteenth century, when Durham was founded. The B. A. de- 
gree is preserved in its pristine purity as representing Greek, Latin, 
mathematics, and religious knowledge, and it is still possible to take 



1 Cf. Ch. VIII, " Women's Colleges," p. 148. 

2 Bp. Hatfield's Hall, opened In 1846 for students in any faculty ; Bp. Cosln's Hall, 
opened 1851, closed 1864 ; S. Chad's Hall, opened 1904 primarily for candidates for 
holy orders ; likewise S. John's Hall in 1909 ; a women's hostel in 1899. NonooUegiate 
or unattached students under a censor in approved lodgings first admitted in 1871. 



OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 43 

the degree in two years. With the incoming: of modern subjects and 
the alliance with Armstrong College to keep the original B. A. with 
compnlsory Latin and Greek the Durham division gives a degree of 
B. A. in litferis antiquis. AVarrant from the above may well be found 
for the recognition in the United States of the small classical college, 
if it will bravely delimit its range of studies. 

One of the most interesting things is the blending of the ancient 
and modern in education and the extension of the principle of the 
federation of colleges in one city to those in another city. After a 
half century of experiments in various forms of afHliation, what ap- 
pears to be a final solution of the problem w^as accomplished by the 
statutes approved by King Edward VII in council in 1909 under 
the University of Durham parliamentary act of 1908. These statutes 
created two divisions of the university to be called respectively " the 
Durham division '' and " the Newcastle division." The Durham di- 
vision comprises the colleges in Durham, and the Newcastle division 
comprises the college of medicine and Armstrong College. Thus all 
the. colleges became integi-al parts of the tripartite university, each 
retaining its local faculties, governing boards, and property, and all 
under the one chancellor, vice chancellor and other university officers, 
and represented in and subject to the university's senate as the su- 
preme governing and executive body of the university.^ Thus dis- 
concerting rivalries have been done away with, and Durham Uni- 
versity has become the crown of the educational system of Newcastle, 
the county of Durham, and its adjacent area. One burgeoning uni- 
versity seems assured in place of two, which 10 years ago it was 
feared would be erected — one of them representing classical and the 
other an industrial extreme — one in Durham, the capital of the county 
with only 15.000 inhabitants, the old ecclesiastical, political, and his- 
toric center, and the other in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, only a dozen 
miles away, with its growing population of 270,000, a center of coal 
fields, of iron and shipbuilding industries. The evolution of three 
institutions into one university is instructive. It grew from the 
loosest affiliation." 

The University of Durham College of Medicine continues as a 
corporation under the Company's Act, and with articles of associ- 
ation registered by the board of trade. It is controlled by a court of 
governors and an executive council. The constitution of the council 
of 21 members supplements the statutes of the university in inter- 
weaving all the institutions concerned, without sacrificing local au- 
tomony. Seven of the council are elected by the court of governors, 
seven by the members of the academic board, i. e., the faculty, three 

1 Cf. Ch. IX, " Organisation and Administration of Universities," p. 159. 
2Cf. Cli. XIII, '• Coonllnation of Institutions," p. 195. 



44 HIGHER EDUCATJON IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

by the senate of the university, two by the house committee of the 
Royal Victoria Infirmary, and two by the council of Armstrong Col 
lege. There is afforded herein an early and happy ilhistration of the 
fact that a medical school can not well be isolated from a university. 
Equally instructive is the story of the relations of Armstrong 
College with the university. The faculty of science in the university 
is still seated entirely in Armstrong College, in which alone are held 
the classes and examinations retiuisite for the degree of B, Sc. Early 
in its career the college recognized the importance of the literary 
side of university education, in virtue of which the university ad- 
mitted its students to the degrees in letters, though not at that time 
to the degrees in arts. Through the benefactions of a number of local 
donors and of the municipality, the college met the standard of the 
board of education for a university college. In 1904 it opened a new 
wing of its extensive and fine college buildings, and in honor of one 
of its patrons, the late Lord Armstrong, took his name. In 1909 
it became an integral part of the university, with full representation 
on the new senate and with admission to university degrees in arts 
as well as in letters and science. It now has the five faculties of pure 
science, of applied science, of arts, of letters, and of commerce 
just instituted. Applied science includes civil, mechanical, and elec- 
trical engineering, mining, metallurgy, naval architecture, and agri- 
(^dtural science. Like the independent university colleges,^ it also 
has departments like agriculture and evening classes below university 
grades, and it recognizes the shorter courses with diplomas. By 
these courses the college closely interlocks itself with the demands 
of a great industrial center and enforces its appeal for immediate 
public support. Principal Hadow recognizes to the full that each 
modern university has to serve as the educating center of the district 
m which it is situated. Yet he contends that the modern universities 
are not in any bad sense utilitarian. He says : ^ 

There are at the present day in England some persons who call themselves 
utilitarians — mainly, I think, because they misconceive the meaning of use- 
fulness — and who take what they regard as a utilitarian view of education. 
According to them its whole object is to provide a man with such information 
and method as may be needed to equip him for his career in after life; so many 
facts in return for so many fees. 

A university in its lower and most practical range is not a trade 
school. Principal Hadow believes that the university inculcates the 
virtues of discipline, of self-restrain, of a single-hearted devotion to 
truth : they rest upon a nobler ground than the fact that they benefit 
their possessor. He adds: 



»Cf. Ch. V, "Independent University Colleges," p. 130. passim. 

2 Hadow, Principal W. H., address, " The Old and New Universities," official report 
of church congress, Middlesbrough, 1912, George Allen & Co., London, pp. 248-245 



OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, DURHAM. 45 

The university investigates principles rather than practice, but It bases its 
lirinciples on an exhaustive survey of the facts, and it so formulates them that, 
they can illuminate practice at every point of application. Qvod in sciendo 
verissinium id in opcrundo utiUssimxim: Let a man desire to know because 
knowledge is good, and he will soon learn to work because work is serviceable. 

The remarkable thing in Armstrong College and its sister colleges 
in the newer universities so often called utilitarian, is the reinforce- 
ment of the sentiments of Principal Hadow by the fact of the 
increase of the liberal arts faculties and students in the midst of insti- 
tutions largely founded and supported in the interests of applied 
science. The principal's annual reports from 1910 on referred to 
the development of the faculty of arts in Armstrong College, as a 
result of the admission of its students to the degree in arts at the 
University of Durham. Even the corporation of Newcastle made an 
additional grant of $45,000 per annum for five years to this faculty. 
The spirit of the older universities has descended upon the newer 
m Durham, The jDrofessional and practical impulses of the newer 
in the Newcastle branches have revivified the older in Durham. 

The most original contribution Durham has to make to our subject 
is its well wrought out scheme of a genuine federation in a central 
university of really autonomous colleges of different types in sepa- 
rate localities.^ A district with a population of 2,400,000- will 
rally to the support of a many-sided united institution in place of 
fragmentary and competing ones. 

Our position is confirmed by opinions gathered from interviews in 
various quarters as well as by published statements like the fol- 
lowing: 

There are those who from time to time urge that the Armstrong College 
would make a yet stronger appeal to local patriotism if it broke away and 
established itself as the University of Newcastle. That, however, is but the 
echo of a controversy now happily buried. Whatever may have been the 
experience elsewliere, the federal tie at Newcastle and Dui'ham has operated 
to the mutual advantage of all the partners The Armstrong College retains a 
sufficient measure of independence to stir the civic pride of every good citizen. 



iCf. Ch. XIII, " Coorrtiuatiou of Institutions," pp. 195-197. 

* Tln' Counties of Durham, Northumberland, Cunibprland, and Westmoreland. 



Chapter II. 

SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 
St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh. 



The Scotch universities^ are as unique in their way as are Oxford 
and Cambridge, from which they are distinctly different. Lord 
Rosebery presents a scholar's as well as a Scotsman's view when 
he says: 

Our systems of religion, of law, and of education are all essentially and out- 
wardly different from those which prevail in England. The church and the law 
we kept strenuously and purposely ; the universities remained not by special 
effort, but because of their fitness for the work. The universities will continue, 
not merely because of their present powers and usefulness, but because of their 
constant readiness to adapt themselves to the shifting conditions of human 
requirement and intellectual effort." 

Lord Bryce elaborates the same thought and brings it to bear upon 
American, especially State, universities: 

The four universities of Scotland are very different from the English and 
rather resemble the universities of Germany. Though far less completely 
equipped than are the latter, for Scotland has been a comparatively poor coun- 
try, they have always given a high quality of instruction and produced a large 
number of remarkable men. There are no residential colleges like those of 
England, so the undergraduates live in lodgings where they please, and thus 
there is less of social student life. But the instruction is stimulating; and the 
undergraduates, being mostly poor men and coming of a diligent and aspiring 
stock, are more generally studious and hard working and self-reliant than those 
of Oxford and Cambridge. Within the last 20 years women have been admitted 
to the classes, and that which was deemed an experiment is pronounced a suc- 
cess. Last I come to your own [American State] universities. AVhereas the 
universities of Germany have been popular, but not free, and those of England 
free, but not popular, yours, like those of Scotland, are both popular and free. 
Their doors are open to every one, and every one enters.' 

From the beginning the Scotch universities have been preeminently 
national and in recent times increasingly State institutions. The 
charter of the oldest Scotch university, St. Andrews, given by Pope 
Benedict XIII, states expressly that the university Avas founded after 

1 See Tables 2 and 3. 

2 Rosebery, Lord, rectorial address University of Edinburgh, 1882. (David Douglas.) 
\). 22. 

•"University and Historical Addresses," supra, p. ICO. 

46 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 47 

full discussion and by the advice and with the consent of the three 
estates of Scotland : 

The Scottish universities are not private corporations — they are national 
seats of learning, existing for the nation, and controlled by the Parliament 
of the nation. And the universities have no wish to become independent of the 
State or to be removed from the control of the State.* 

The second oldest university. Glasgow, was established by Pope 
Nicholas V by a bull dated January 7. 1450-51, at the instigation of 
King James II, as well as of Bishop Turnbull, and was modeled after 
Bologna, one of the oldest and most democratic of universities. The 
next two universities at Aberdeen, although also at an ecclesiastical 
center, start with a distinctly national impress. At the instance of 
King James IV, Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, obtained in 
1494-95 the authority of a papal bull to found the university. 
Within the university the college of St. Mary was called King's Col- 
lege because of royal patronage and is styled in acts of Scots Parlia- 
ment, " Our Sovereine Lord. His College and University." The 
other Aberdeen foundation, Marischal College, was emphatically 
Scottish, established in 1593 by the Earl Marischal, George Keith, 
under a charter ratified by act of the Scots Parliament. 

The youngest of the universities, P^dinburgh. placed at the royal 
capital, in contrast to the oldest, St. Andrews, at the ecclesiastical 
capital, was established as the " Town's College " in 1583 by the town 
council of Edinburgh, under powers granted by King James VI. 
Gradually in acts of the general assembly, of the town council, and 
of Parliament, " The College of James VI," which from the begin- 
ning possessed the privilege of conferring degrees, came to be styled 
the " University of Edinburgh." Kemaining under the patronage 
and control of the tow^n council down to 1858, it was not only in- 
tensely national but also the forerunner of the great municipal 
universities in England.- 

These institutions considered from the beginning as national cor- 
porations, unlike the view taken of Oxford and Cambridge as private 
trusts, became after the Reformation with the plans for a national 
system of education practically State universities. From that day to 
this there has been a constant support and supervision of the univer- 
sities, first by the church and then by the state.^ The first book of 
discipline (1560) of the Kirk undertakes to make certain arrange- 
ments for the three universities. Fundamental changes have been 
made repeatedly. " A Nova Erectio," or new charter, Avas given to 
the University of Glasgow in 1577, largely through the influence of 

1 Donaldson, Sir James. " Addresses Delivered in the University of St. Andrews, 1886- 
1910," T. and A. Constable, 1911. p. 47. 

= Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," p. 102. 
»Cf. Oil. XII, "Stale Aid and VisitaUon," p. 190. 



48 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Principal Melville, who brought from the University of Paris the 
revolt against the supremacy of Aristotle. Under the same influence 
in 1583 at Aberdeen there was a " Nova Fundatio " prepared by a 
commission appointed partly by the King and partly by the 
assembly.^ 

The early Scotch belief that it is the duty of the State to maintain 
a national system of education by taxation — a system including pri 
mary, secondary, and university education — has resulted in frequent 
legislation by Parliaments on the universities. The Scottish univer- 
sities acts of 1858 and 1889 have effected little less than a revolution 
in the constitution," standards, curricula, State aid, and coordination 
of the universities. They constitute the four universities "The aca- 
demic quadrilateral," as the crowning citadel in Scotland's educa- 
tional system. Since 1901 this citadel has been strengthened by 
private gift as well as by the doubling of the public grant. In that 
year the great Scotch- American created the " Carnegie Trust " for the 
universities of Scotland by the donation of $10,000,000. The hos- 
pitality and heart of the giver followed his treasure in the annual 
invitation to Skibo Castle of the four principals of the universities 
for conference with each other, and other distinguished Scotsmen 
interested in the universities. On one of these occasions Lord Hal- 
dane (at that time Mr. Haldaiie, and not a member of the Govern- 
ment) urged an appeal to the Government for a large sum to meet 
the needs of the universities.^ The result was, in addition to the 
sums of $150,000 a year under the education and local taxation ac- 
count (Scotland) act 1892, and $210,000 annually under the uni 
versities (Scotland) act, 1889, the grant of $200,000 a year to Scottish 
universities and, still more important, the provision of a way of 
adding to the grants in the education (Scotland) act of 1908.^ 

The age-long State supervision and State aid are manifestations 
of the fundamentally national character of the Scotch universities. 
In early days as isolated people, in a ])icturesque but infertile land 
tending to breed poverty and necessitating thrift, with little distinc- 
tion of classes, with the cherishing of a sense of equality and individ- 
uality by clan and by church, there was generated what came to be 
known later — particularly in Xew England and the West — as a " pas- 
sion for education." The New England mother's charge to her son 
would have fitted the Scotch mother e()ually well, " Child, if God make 
thee a Christian and a scholar, thou hast all I ever asked for thee." 

In the absence of modern opportunities and the temptations of 
wealth, education opened the most eligible pathway for a career. 

1 Rait, Robert Sangster, " The Universities of Aberdeen," Bissett, 1895, pp. 106-110. 

2 Of. Chs. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159 ; XIII, " Co- 
ordination of Institutions." 

* Donaldson, Sir James, addresses, supra. 

*Cf. Ch. XII, "State Aid and Visitation," p. 190. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 49 

Education from the lowest to the highest was a necessity before the 
age of coal and steel for Scotland's greatest export — educated brains. 
The Scotch could not, like the nation of landlords and shopkeepers 
south of them, d)-eani that because of their prosperity in agriculture, 
manufactures, and commerce a national system was little worth while. 
So Scotch sentiment and practice were the constant source of their 
educational legislation, and anticipated by centuries the Prussian 
scheme of 1817 of the organization of State education, crowned by 
universities and the present iiiovement of their English brethren in 
the same direction. 

The notion in the outline for .'in American State system of education 
embodied in the Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the North- 
west Territory may be traced to the same Scotch source, coming from 
the pen of an American Presbyterian minister with a Scotch name. 

Vigorous as has been the development of the American State uni- 
versity, it may yet profit by paying attention to the Scotch example. 
The teacher in the school preparing for the university must be a 
university man imbued wath the spirit of the old-time parochial 
teacher, so lovingly depicted by " Ian MacLaren " in " Domsie," ever 
alert to discover the " laddie o' pairts who must awa' to the uni- 
versity." 

Until after the first quarter of the nineteenth century these teach- 
ers were sent out from the universities. With the incoming of in- 
struction in newer subjects like geography, training colleges, the 
first of Avhich in Britain was the Glasgow Normal Seminary, opened 
in 1827, began to supplant the universities in the preparation of 
these teachers. The universities are recovering their primal function 
of training teachers and regaining their leavening influence in the 
schools by cooperation with the provincial committees for the train- 
ing of teachers. Professional training ma}' be conjoined with the 
university course in a way similar to that which has obtained in the 
case of normal school and local committee schools or it may be taken 
as a postgraduate course.^ EuU warrant is thus given for the estab- 
lishment of schools or colleges of education as in American uni- 
versities. 

Thus happily have the Scotch coordinated the training schools or 
colleges with the universities and set an example for the solution of 
what has been made a difficult problem in the United States in re- 
lating the normal schools to the colleges and universities. The link- 
ing up of the Scotch educational system is further seen in the making 



1 Cf. " Glasgow Provincial Committee for the Training of Teachers, report, April, 1913," 
pp. 5, 7, 8, " The number of education students with a university training is a fairly 
constant quantity at the Glasgow Center, being about 500 in each year." Of. Ch XIV, 
"Applied Science and Professiona' Education," pp. 210-212. 

89687°— Bull. 10— 17' 4 



50 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

of the universities the coordinating centers, conjointly with the sepa- 
rate agricultural colleges, in defined areas for lower and higher agri- 
cultural education,^ and in the recent agreements for cooperation 
Vi'ith the great technical schools. The unification of the universities 
with the preservation of their individual autonomy, secured by the 
parliamentary act of 1889, and the impulse given to modern subjects 
further developed by the conferences and joint boards of the uni- 
A ersities themselves has been stimulated by the Carnegie Trust. The 
I'rust, with its $500,000 a year to distribute, has become an influence 
second only to the Government. AVc are confronted with a recent 
phenomenon of great interest in the history of education on both 
sides of the Atlantic — the administration of vast educational funds 
and the influence upon institutions by extraneous perpetual corpora- 
tions. Without entering into the merits of the discussion, we can not 
therefore pass by the bare facts of the Carnegie Trust and some of 
the criticisms of it. In 1901 Mr. Carnegie conveyed to trustees 
$10,000,000 in bonds of the United States Steel Corporation, bearing 
interest at 5 per cent. He directed that one-half of the net income 
should be applied toward the improvement and expansion of the uni- 
versities of Scotland in the facidties of science and medicine, also for 
improving and extending the opportunities of scientific stud}^ and 
research, and for increasing the facilities for acquiring knoAvledge 
of history, econ(mics, English literature, modern languages, and 
technical or commercial education. The other half of the income was 
to be devoted to assisting students of Scottish birth or extraction in 
the payment of university class fees. Of the 2'2 trustees, -4 are elected 
by the universities, each university' choosing its representative for a 
period of four years. Of the executive committee of 9 members, 2 are 
of the 4 trustees elected by the universities, alternating every two 
years. This direct representation of the universities is reinforced by 
the fact that other members of the Trust are often from the governing 
bodies of the institutions. Four ex officio members relate the trust 
more widely. His Majesty's Secretary for Scotland and the provosts 
of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dunfermline. 

The Trust instituted a quinquennial scheme of distribution of 
grants to the four university centers. The total grants for the 11 
academic years from October 1, 1902, till Se])tember 30. 191-3, 
amounted to $2,270,000, of Avhich there were allocated to libi'aries 
$217,500, to buildings and permanent equipment $1,016,775. and to 
teaching $1,036,220. In the four universities in this period 3 chairs 
and 25 lectureships have been partially or completely endowed.- The 

1 Cf. Ch. VII, "Agricultural Colloges and Schools," p. 142. 

»" The Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Twelfth Ann. Rept." (1912-13) ; 
Edinburgh University Press, 1014. pi). 7, 8. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 51 

policy of the Trust in making additions to the capital endowments of 
the universities rather than relief to income has been justified. To 
the institutions has been left the sole responsibility in the matter of 
their annual ways and means. In the new and additional buildings, 
lectureships, and chairs the Trust without intermeddling with inter- 
nal administration has added to the permanent equipment and en- 
richment of the institutions. The Trust is of the opinion that it must 
not be bound to anything of the nature of a fixed proportion to the 
respective university centers. " The Trust must always be in a posi- 
tion to determine its action from the point of view of Scotland and 
Scottish university education as a whole." ^ 

The second great work of the Trust appears in its research scheme 
intended to reach all classes of workers from students who have just 
graduated to graduates who have already entered on professional 
careers. Provision is made for scholarships of the annual value of 
$500, fellowships of $750, and grants in aid of i-esearch. Selection 
is not made by competitive examination but on the evidence of 
experts regarding the applicants' special fitness. In the case of 
applications for grants from members of the staffs of the institutions 
the Trust, which had been making the grants without consultation 
with the governing bodies of the institutions concerned, now requires 
that the application should be made through the governing bodies 
and with their advice. The scholarships and fellowships are limited 
to subjects in science, and medicine, in history, economics, and mod- 
ern languages and literature. With all the above operations of the 
Trust there has been general satisfaction. The testimony is that there 
has been stimulated a spirit of research such as did not previously 
exist in Scotland. In the wider field also of the British universities 
the spirit of research is being propagated, inasmuch as the Scotch 
Carnegie felloAvs and scholars have been permitted to work in other 
British universities, including Montreal. The total of the grants for 
this postgraduate and research scheme for the 10 years to 1913 was 
$3,152,260. Contributions to knowledge have resulted in nearly 
every branch of experimental science. 

The report of the Trust alleges that " many of the English and some 
of the colonial universities now rival those of the Continent in the 
provision Avhich they make for research especially in the subjects of 
radioactivity and molecular physics and in the repute of their 
teachers." ^ The success and economy of the Trust in the promotion of 
graduate study and of research by leaving the work in the university 
and extending their libraries, laboratories, and publications, rather 
than by setting up a separate institution for investigation and re- 

> '• The Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. Twelfth Ann. Rept." 
(IHK-l.^) ; Edinburgh University Press, 1914. p. 10. 

= Il)i(l., p. 17. Cf. rii. XV, "Advanced Study and Resemch without (;radu;ite S.hools," 
p. 210. 



52 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

search, make against the establishment of independent institutions 
for the purpose. 

The happy and far-reaching effects of the two lines of operation of 
the Trust in the " endowment of postgraduate study and research " 
and " grants for universities and extramural colleges " have been 
acknowledged by the critics who attack the Trust's third line of 
operations in " assistance in the payment of class fees." The regula- 
tions require that the applicants must be of Scottish birth or extrac- 
tion and should hold ordinarily the leaving certificate of the Scotch 
Education Department bearing evidence of such preliminary edu- 
cation as is required by the universities for their respective graduat- 
ing curricula. The applicants must have had their courses of study 
for each academic year approved bv the university adviser of studies. 
They are not eligible for assistance in the payment of fees of classes 
belonging to a further stage of their curriculum until they have 
passed the graduation examinations belonging to a previous stage. 
The annual allowances toward payment of class fees are for the 
ordinary degree in arts $45 a year for three years, or for honors $45 
a year for four years; in science, $60 a year for three years; in medi- 
cine, $75 a year for five years; in law, divinity, and music, $30 a year 
for three years. 

In the period from the institution of the Trust in 1901 to September 
30, 1913, the Trust paid $2,670,045 to 13,382 beneficiaries, of whom 
4.000 were Avomen. In the same period 117 beneficiaries have vohm- 
tarily refunded advances for class fees to the amount of $14,065. 

Mr. Carnegie, when making the gift in 1901. wrote: 

My desire throughout has been that no capable student should be debarred 
from attending the university on account of the payment of fees. * * * i 
hope that the honest pride for which my countrymen are distinguished will 
prevent claims from those who do not require assistance, and that the invidious 
task of inquiring into the circumstances of each candidate need not be imposed 
upon the trustees. * * * The donor, believing that some students in after 
life may value the privilege of repaying advances received from the trustees, 
although these are free gifts, hopes the trustees will gladly welcome repayments 
from such students as prefer to consider the payments made on their account 
merely as advances, and that this will protect and foster the spirit of manly 
independence so dear to the Scot. 

In the face of this, " Mr. Carnegie has been much blamed for 
lowering the independence of the Scottish people," says one of the 
ablest critics of the methods of the Trust in the payment of fees. 
He adds " whatever blame there be must rest with the Trust." ^ 

The aim of the criticisms is to preserve the universities from what 
may tend to be undue influence upon them of the Trust and to have 
put into their hands the distribution of the funds in aid of students. 

1 '• Memoranda by Principal Sir James Donaldson on the Carnegie Trust and Its 
Administration." St Andrews, 1913, p. 3, passim. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 53 

The arguments used are that the annual income of over $125,000 in 
bursaries independent of the trust made it unnecessary to institute 
the payment of fees of students in arts, science, and theology. It is 
admitted that these bursaries are thrown open to public competition 
and often obtained by rich students, otherwise it is estimated they 
would be sufficient to care for every poor student in Scotland. 

The increase of 25 per cent in the attendance of students since the 
inauguration of the Trust is attributed largely to the increase in 
the attendance of women, partly induced by the payment of the 
fees. The students are subject to no investigations of their 
pecuniary needs or the receipt of a bursary and are dealt with 
independent of their parents, so it is believed that rich and 
poor students accept the payment of fees as a gift to add to their 
pleasures and comfort. In the case of professional students, in 
engineering, medicine, and law, it is urged that the policy of the 
Trust tempts men into a career where they have to face poverty, and 
that discrimination should be made in favor of the poor young man 
of rare capacity by grants for both maintenance and payment of 
fees. The remedy proposed for these evils is the management of 
this portion of the trust funds by the universities with the facilities 
they have at first hand to treat each individual case. In the back- 
ground of these arguments appear certain general regulations of the 
Trust which it is deemed impinge at least indirectly upon the freedom 
of the universities. Various actions are cited, such as the resolution 
" that there should be equality of class fees among the Scottish uni- 
versities in regard at least to the degree-qualifying classes." 

The stress put by the Trust upon the leaving certificate of the 
Scotch Education Department, rather than upon the preliminary 
examinations of the universities, resulting in 87 per cent of the new 
beneficiaries for the winter session 1912-13 entering by a full leaving 
certificate, threatens seemingly the system of admission to the uni- 
versities.^ The universities feel the strictness of the provisions of 
the Trust that their beneficiaries must pass examinations required for 
the degree proper to their curricula precedent to the further pay- 
ment of class fees, and that beneficiaries must proceed to a degree. 
The effects of these regulations seem too stringent, and were indeed 
far-reaching, to a community accustomed to the matriculation of 
students who had not passed the admission examination and who 
were permitted to go on with their university studies without passing 
class examinations or being candidates for a degree. The Trust also, 
before renewing its annual payment of fees for its beneficiaries, fol- 
lows them up by means of reports and thus has brought it about that 

» Cf. Ch. XVI, " Examinations," pp. 22G-227. 



54 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

tlie miiveisil ies have iii^j^ointed .student advisers, who not only make 
reports l)iit are also supposed to guide the student in tlie clioice juid 
order of the subjects of his curriculuuL 

The choice of studies was further effected by the adoption of 
the inchisive in phice of the class fee. The Trust began to agitate 
in 1907 for this change. The State treasury sought in 1911 to make 
it a condition for receiving its grant to the universities. The Trust 
contended the class fee tempted the teacher as well as the student 
to put financial considerations above educational ones in the ar- 
langement and choice of classes. In addition the Trust, to prevent 
one university from underselling another, resolved " that there shoidd 
be equality of class fees among the Scottish universities in regard, 
at least, to the degree-qualifying classes."^ In vieAv of the above 
facts, a vigorous objector exclaims, " The Scottish Education Depart- 
lAent, in alliance with the Trust, has succeeded in driving a broad 
highway through the universities, a way over which Parliament, 
courts, councils, and senatuses have neither veto nor control." * 

It is evident that the Trust has become incidentally and almost 
necessarily a standardizing agency in the universities and certain 
central institutions whose w^ork is recognized as of " university level, ' 
and even indirectly in the secondary schools.-^ Sir William Mc- 
Cormick testifies that over 20 years ago, when the parliamentary 
commissioners set up a preliminary education standard for the Scot- 
tish universities, there was no entrance standard, but it has been the 
compelling force that has raised secondary education. The raising 
of the standard has eliminated what was practically a secondary 
school department in the university. He ventures to compare the 
Scotch university now in this lespect as follows: 

In Germany they do their secondary education all in school. In America 
they have a different arrangement because they have what they call a 
college, which is a buffer between the secondary school and the university, 
and it is hard to say what it represents on our standards, but I should say 
that on the whole it is half-and-half. 

Thus the Trust illustrates anew that influence may be as great a 
power as authority. In any case the power of the purse is felt. The 

1 nnder protest the universities adopted the inclusive fee except in the faculties of 
medicine and applied science, where, inter alia, the great expense of instruction in 
certain necessary subjects, arrangements with extramural institutions, and the number 
of non-Scottish students led to complications. In 1914 the University of Edinburgh had 
not yet arranged with the treasury an Inclusive fee in medicine and applied science. 

•The Aberdeen Univ. Rev., Nov., 1913, p. 63. Cf. pp. 73, 74, 75. Oxford Mag., May 
15, 22. 1913. University of Glasgow General Council Reports, Apr. 24, 1912, pp. 15-23 : 
Apr. 30, 1913, pp. 21-24, 39-41. 

* Royal commission on the civil service, minutes of evidence, 1913, Sir William S. 
McCormick. secretary of the trust, pp. 19-21. He states the whole ease of the trust, 
pp. 15-24, 106-111. 



SCOTCH UNlVEHSn IKS. 55 

Trust professes to push t'orwaixi ideals ad vauced b}' the connnissioiiers 
under the act of 1889 and to be cooperant with the Scottish Education 
Department and the Treasury. It is not surprising that there is some 
concern in some quarters for the autonomy of the universities. 

The Treasury in not enforcing the demand for the inchisive fee hi 
applied science and medicine; and the Trust, relying more arid more 
upon student advisers and the recommendation of the stajEfs in re- 
search appointments, shows respect for that autonomy. The thought 
is brought home that for coordination and standardizing purposes 
an influence outside university faculties may be desirable, and that 
there may be advantages in securing the cooperation of the State and 
organized private benevolence with the universities. A threefold 
cord is not soon broken, but in this case care must be had that the 
educational strand is strengthened and not weakened by the financial 
one. 

The Scotch universities, intertwined Avith the imperial treasury, 
with the Scottish education department and national school system, 
Avith the Trust, and touched by a cosmopolitanism due to an interna- 
tional attendance in medicine and applied science, and the scattering 
of their alumni through all lands, may Avell be declared by Maurice 
Hewlett " fiercely modern." Paradoxically he maintains that they 
have a "medieval character, while Oxford and Cambridge have 
completely lost it." ^ 

They are medieval in that colleges never choked the strong central 
government of the universities, the dominance of the professoriate 
was never lost, the professorial class lecture was not su]:)planted by 
the collegiate tutorial instruction, and the sacred seven subjects of 
the trivium and quadrivium luue retained their prominence almost 
till to-day. Although since the royal commission (1889) not less 
than 22 chairs and 14G lectureships in scientific and modern subjects 
have been added, there is no full chair in the modern languages, and 
the political, economic, and social sciences are largely represented 
only by lectureships. As the assistant professoriate in America has 
agitated for the faculty franchise and proportionate salaries, so 
are the lecturers in Scotland inclined to do, and from some such 
sources the Scotch universities have been called " reactionary." The 
survival of the best of medievalism in respect for antiquit}' and the 
continuity of a sturdy authority, imbued with a democratic spirit 
which embraces in the membership of the university, and with rep- 
resentation in the Government, the graduates and the students, and 
all in close alliance with the State and nation, certainly enriches the 
modernity which has also been noted in the Scotch universities. 



» Glasgow University Students' Handbook, 1913-14, p. xix. 



56 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN EN(iLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

ST. ANDREWS. 

St. Andrews stands as an example to the American advocate of the 
small, rural, secluded, inexpensive institution, immovable from its 
original site, appreciating the work of unbroken historic associations. 
The Pope's bull at the founding of the university reads, " Consider- 
ing the peace and quietness which flourish in the said city of St. 
Andrews." Dean Stanley, impressed by the university's site, upon 
its high sea-girt promontory and its background of the ruins of 
cathedral and castle, saj's of it : 

This secluded sanctuary of ancient wisdom, witli tlie foamtiakes of tlie nortli- 
ern ocean driving tlirougli its streets, with the slveleton of its antique magnifi- 
cence lifting up its gaunt arms into the sky, still carries on the tradition of its 
first beginnings. It may still be said of the local genius of St. Andrews that, 
through all the manifold changes * * *, Its spiritual identity has never 
been altogether broken, its historical grandeur never wholly forfeited. 

St. Andrews is a demonstration of the practical impossibility of 
extinguishing or removing a college once planted and having genera- 
tions of graduates. On account of the location of the university, in 
a town of scarce 10,000 inhabitants, and its small number of students 
and poverty, compared with its three sister universities in great 
urban centers, between 1870 and 1890 various propositions for change 
were made. One w^as to distribute both professors and students 
among the other universities; another was to alter the university 
into another kind of educational institution. The* proposal to dis- 
solve the oldest universit}^ of Scotland aroused keen protest. The 
outcome was the union of the university with the medical college and 
University College in Dundee.^ Thus the addition of a fifth Scottish 
university was stayed, and the ancient university developed its 
faculty of science and its faculty of medicine with its first two years 
at St. Andrews, a notable experiment along the line of the American 
attempts at a bipedal college of medicine. 

Possibly the record of the university in the production of political 
leaders, philosophers, and poets, indicates something characteristic 
which led it to see a great Avay oti' the movement for the higher edu- 
cation of women and to go (uit to meet it. Responding to the Edin- 
burgh Association for University Education of Women, formed in 
1869, in 1876 St. Andrews instituted examinations for the diploma 
for women, with the title of L. L. A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The 
title was the first formal precursor of a degree for women. It was a 
recognition of external examinations on a standard practically 
equivalent to that for the ordinary M. A. degree. Liberty was given 
to take up the subjects in any order and to spread the examinations 
over any length of time. As a semiuniversity extension and a semi- 

» Cf. p. 57 and Ch. XIII, " Coordination of Institutions," pp. 197-198. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 57 

correspondence school movement, it was sometimes ridiculed "as a 
sham/' It has justified itself at least as a transitory movement and 
has been strengthened by provisions for obtaining honors in certain 
branches and for a special diploma for teachers/ 

St. Andrews tends to become the Scotch Mecca for the higher edu- 
cation of women. It has by far the highest percentage of women in 
attendance of all the British universities (41 per cent, 1912-13). The 
location, as well as the policy of the university, encourages the at- 
tendance of women and suggests that where there are competing 
institutions one of them might more or less specialize for women. 
St. Andrews, with Edinburgh, first established a chair of education, 
while the other two universities still have only lectureships begun 
nearly 2o years later. Provision is made in the university for courses 
in methods of teaching for students, largely women, training for 
secondary school teacherships. The Scotch education department, 
through the St. Andrews provincial committee for the training of 
teachers, constituted in 1905, provides for full courses of instruction 
at St. Andrews and Dundee, and even makes maintenance allowances. 
In 1896 one of the finest stone halls of residence for women students, 
so planned that it could be extended from time to time, was opened 
and a warden of women appointed. The grounds, about 3^ acres, 
contain the women students' pavilion and lawn tennis courts and 
adjoin the extensive university athletic field given by Mr. Carnegie. 
Through the kindness of Mrs. Carnegie a permanent union for 
women students has been opened near the center of the university. 

ST. ANDREWS AND DUNDEE. 

St. Andrews and Dundee, together with Durham and Newcastle, 
are unique in the union by incorporation of institutions in different 
localities.^ In the early seventies Sir David Baxter left a bequest 
for the founding of a mechanics' or technical institute in Dundee, 
As a result of a subscription of $600,000 by Miss Baxter in 1881, 
University College in Dundee was founded, to have the same aims 
as Owens College, Manchester. The college authorities were em- 
powered to amalgamate or cooperate with the inchoate technical 
institute. The latter institution Avas continued under separate man- 
agement in a building adjoining the college, undertaking " grant- 

1 University of St. Andrews. " Tlie L. L. A. Examination, Diploma, and Title for 
Women,'" 1914, p. 11. Total number of candidates entered from 1877-1912, inclusive, 
25,551, of whom 3,492 received the title. The number of candidates in 1912 was 978, 
and titles received 125. The number of centers and places of examination in 1913 
throughout Great Britain and Ireland and a few over-sea places was 52. 

- Ci. Chs. I, "Oxford, CanUiridse, Durham" p. 43; XIII, "Coordination of In.stltu- 
tlons," pp. 197-198. 



58 HIGHER EDUCATION IN EN(if.AND AND SCOTLAND. 

earning" instruction below university grade. Tlie institute Hour- 
ishes with an enrollment (1913) of 1,260 students.^ 

By public subscription and by grants from the Scotch education 
department a site, buildings, and equipment costing about $100,000 
were accepted by the technical institute trustees. The technical col- 
lege keeps to " those branches of learning necessarj' or useful for 
working mechanics or other craftsmen," and recognizes the special 
needs of the locality by instruction in jute and linen manufacture 
and by a navigation and marine engineering department.^ 

GLASGOW. 

Glasgow University, only a half century the junior of St. Andrews, 
was founded in a little place of less than -5.000 inhabitants, insignifi- 
cant then compared with the important and populous port of St. 
Andrews. It is now emphatically the urban university of Scotland, 
in its metropolis of a million, the second city in population of Great 
Britain and Ireland. " The smell of the Agora mingles with that of 
calfskin and midnight oil.*' More than once it has changed its site. 
It teaches the courage and virtues necessary for an urban university 
to escape from the coils of a ra])idly envek)]nng city to a position 
where it can dominate the city, being in it but not of it. The imposing 
front of the new vast buildings designed by the late Sir (x. Gilbert 
Scott, towering from the extensive grounds of Gilmorehill occupieLi 
by the university in 1870, convey two warnings : Architectural features 
should be subordinated to schols.stic requirements in collegiate buikl 
ings, and one huge structure should not be erected in place of a 
series of harmonizing groups of buildings with units that may be 
extended. The building, opened in 1870 and expected to afford ac- 
commodation for the increase vi years to come, despite heterogeneous 
additions, soon proved inadequate. The 25 professors making a 
total staff of 35 teachers in 1870 increased to 36 professors, a total 
staff of 203 in 1914. The extension of laboratory instruction has 
required new buildings of a different type, which have been planted 
liere and there as best they could be. 

The earlier location of the imiversity, in the heart of the city, 
affording facilities for the lodging of students, may have contributed 
to the disappearance of residential colleges, of which there is a dim 

I The Dundee Technical College and School of Art is a happy illustration of the clear 
cleavage made by the Scotch education department's regulations and by university in- 
fluence between school work and work of university grade. The demand of an industrial 
age for technical and art instruction below university standards (too often frustrated in 
the United States by the ambition of lower institutions to do university work) is success- 
fully met by the Dundee Technical College taking over the evening technical classes of 
the technical institution and likewise the technical work of the high school and also of 
the Young Men's Christian Association. 

»Cf. Ch. VI, "Technical Colleges and Schools," p. 138. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 59 

tradition, ;uid the noiijipi)eai;uice of hostels until (he founding of 
Queen A[nrgaret College (lSb3). It is instructive to observe that 
this provision for women, as has not infrequently been the case in 
Britain and the United States, has introduced a movement for resi- 
dential halls for men. In the face of the habit of centuries not to 
inspect or approve of students lodgings, Glasgow University an- 
nounces that furthei- developments of hostels are contemplated.^ 

(xlasgow illustrates the well-known advantages of an urban uni- 
versity. Wealthy citizens make voluntary contributions for buildings 
and endowments. Their cosmopolitanism and interests broaden and 
stimulate the subjects of instruction and research in the university. 
The prominence and political weight of the community attract stu- 
dents and governmental favor and grants. Eighteen professorships 
were founded during the nineteenth century, chiefly in a]:)plied 
sciences, including medicine under this head. 

As early as 1840 Queen Victoria instituted a professorship of civil 
engineering and mechanics, later supplemented by gifts from Glas- 
gow citizens. Even earlier (1823) the citizens had established the 
mechanics' institute apart from tlie university. The other branches 
of engineering have developed, and quite naturally Glasgow has the 
only chair of mining and the only university chair of naval archi- 
tecture, including marine engineering, in Scotland. The latest happy 
step for applied science is the affiliation of the Royal Technical Col- 
lege, Glasgow, with the imiversity.- The response of the university 
to its environment gives it a preeminence in industrial education. 
By a wise provision also it has an arrangement with the West of 
Scotland Agricultural College by which the degree of bachelor of 
science in agriculture is given without unnecessary duplication of 
work.' 

Glasgow, ever since the establishment of its first engineering chair, 
for three-quarters of a century has favored the " sandwich system," 
made possible by the limitation of the university session for study 
to half of each year and the proximity to the university of work- 
shops, offices, and shipyards for practical work the other half year. 
In recent discussions under the auspices in London of the Institution 
of Naval Architects, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and 
the Institution of Civil Engineers the preponderance of opinion has 
favored a full collegiate technical education with the sandwich sys- 
tem.* Glasgow has been true to the combination of the theoretical 
and practical, associated with the beginning of the steam age by the 

1 Cf. Ch. XVIII, " student Life." 

- Cf. Chs. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 205 ; XIII, " Coordi- 
nation of Institutions," p. 199. 

^ Cf. Ch. VII, "Agricultural Colleges and Schools, ' p. 139. 

* The Institution of Civil Engineers, report of special committee on practical train- 
ing of engineers, adopted July, 1914, W. Clowes & Sons, London. 



60 HIGHKK KDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

name of James Watt, mathematical instrmnent maker to the uni 
versity, and that of the electrical age by the name of Lord Kelvin 
professor of natural philosophy and chancellor. A similar combina- 
tion of theory and practice is required for the degrees of B. Sc. and 
D. Sc. in Public Health and of B. Sc. in Pharmac}'. 

For the former degree after graduation in medicine at least six 
months must be given to acquiring a practical knowledge in public 
health administration. For the latter degree, in addition to their 
academic courses, the}^ must be either chemists or druggists regis- 
tered under the pharmacy act or graduates in medicine. In like 
manner in chemistry a union of training in theory and laboratories 
with practical experience is advocated, as might be expected in an 
institution numbering among its graduates a chemist like Sir Wil- 
liam Ramsay.^ In the field of the political, economic, and social 
sciences this urban university suggests the value of the use of the 
community as a laboratory in these subjects. A combined course in 
political philosophy and social economics and a lectureship in eco- 
nomic history reinforce the chairs of moral philosopiiy, of political 
economy, and of history. The Glasgow University students' settle- 
ment society with its residence, founded in 1889, is the only students' 
settlement in Great Britain, although there are many conducted by 
graduates. There is also the Queen Margaret College settlement 
association, founded in 1897, Avith a settlement house. 

The closeness of the university to the Scotch Nation is indicated 
by the recent endowment of the chair of Scottish history and litera- 
ture. About $100,000 was given from the receipts of the Scottish 
Fvxhibition of National History, Art, and Industry (Glasgow, 1911) 
and from contributions by the Merchants' House, Glftsgow, and by a 
citizens' committee. While cheerfully yielding to a popular move- 
ment, the university " would remove any tendencies to parochialism, 
picturesqueness, and defective perspective which might arise if 
Scottish history were accepted as an isolated independent course *' 
by requiring that the course for graduation purposes shall be pre- 
ceded by or accompanied by a course in history. The wisdom, not 
to say canniness, of the Scotch university in preserving popular 
interest and not sacrificing university standards may be commended 
to Irish and certain colleges in the United States subject to national 
zeal.^ 

The participation of students in the government of the university, 
a common characteristic of the Scotch universities, is perhaps par- 

'^ The university court has sent the draft of a new ordinance to the general council 
which provides that a degree of bachelor of science in applied chemistry may be con- 
ferred by the university (Oct. 14, 1914). 

2 A case in point would be compulsory Irish' in the universities of Ireland or instruc- 
tion in the language and literature of a considerable settlement of a given nationality in 
one of the States. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 61 

tjcularly prominent in Glasgow, " from its foundation endowed with 
the privileges, liberties, honors, and immunities of Bologna." It 
has been peculiarly the students' university. Here and in Aberdeen 
alone survives the division of the matriculated students into four 
nations for the purpose of electing the rector.^ The " liberties and 
immunities " of the students sometimes assert themselves spectacu- 
larly, especially in graduation ceremonies. The Times reports a 
recent example.^ When the Lord Provost of Glasgow, an ex officio 
member of the university court, being unpopular with the students 
on account of his attitude toward Lord Eobert's campaign for com- 
pulsory military training, appeared upon the stage in company with 
the principal, he was greeted Avith cries of '' Put out the Lord 
Provost." Several professors left the platform and mixed among 
the undergraduates to restore order, but the students armed them 
selves with soda-water siphons and squirted the contents about. The 
capping ceremony was carried out ])ractically in dumb show. 

ABERDEEN. 

The Universit}^ of Aberdeen has a peculiarly Scottish flavor, stand- 
ing in the granite-built city at the heart of the Province of Moray, 
well called the Scotland of Scotland. The visitor is constrained to 
join in the words of William Watson: 

Hoary thy countenance and thy mien severe, 

And built of tlie bones of Mother Earth thou wast, 

But on thy lienrt hath fall'n no touch of frost, 

O city of the pallid brow austere. 

Grey, wintry-featured, sea-throned Aberdeen, 

Thee and the towers of learning and of peace 

Tliat brood benignant on the northern foam. 

And one who has been within the university hastens to add the 
lines of Thomas Hardy: 

Behind that granite mien 
Lxu'ks the imposing beauty of a Queen. 

The university in its early days had a district all its own, almost 
inaccessible from the south, from which it was separated by moor, 
mountain, and firth. It had and has largely preserved the virtues 
attributed to the pioneer American college. It was small and inex- 
pensive. Its students Avere homogeneous, coming from plain and 
(rod-fearing homes. Relatives cheerfully sacrificed to send the stu- 
dent of the family through college. Parents actually supplied oat- 
meal and other provisions from home as late as 1870.^ No wonder 

» Cf. Ch. X, " University Officers," pp. 174-175. 
3 The Times, June 21, 1913. 

3 "The homes of the rural students, 1866-1870," Aberdeen Univ. Rev., vol. 1, No. 1, 
l.p. :i6-41. 



G2 HIGHKR KDUCATION 1^' KNiiLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

its aliinmi are said to be cast in a stoic mold and to add grit to 
granite. They are scattered throughout the world, marked with an 
individuality all their own, and abounding in a loyalty to their alma 
mater. They have shown the value for more than thirty years of 
organizing university clubs at different centers, from Edinburgh and 
London to South Africa, to maintain a close fellowship between 
Aberdeen men and to promote the interests of tiie university. 

A spirit of universality and progress has characterized this, by 
location, provincial university. Its original charter empowered it to 
establish any and all lawful faculties and to confer degrees witii all 
the rights and privileges of those of the Universities of Paris and 
liologna. Moreover, Parliament, in 1670. not content with confirm- 
ing these privileges derived from the Pope, added those which 
might be jjossessed by ''any other university whatsomever." We 
hear of a "Mediciner" in 1505, his chair being the most ancient 
foundation for medical instruction in (ireat Britain. A succession 
of fundamental changes has kept alive a notion of ]5rogress.^ In 1583 
there was a Nova Fundatio. In 1593 the founding of Mareschal Col- 
lege and University began a stimulating and sometimes stultifying 
rivalr}^, lasting for 267 years, making Aberdeen a unique double-star 
university. It narrowly escaped having a satellite in a third uni- 
versity.^ 

An attem]it to unite the two universities in King Charles Uni- 
versity in 1641 failed, but the successful union effected in 18()0 has 
begun a new era. The very buildings in'oclaim the happy combina- 
tion of the old and the new. In the union of the universities they 
did not, in American fashion, abandon the old group of buildings of 
King's College " unique in Scotland "" and concentrate in the new 
granite quadrangles of Mareschal College, a mile or more away. 
AVith appreciation of architecture and historical associations, they 
preserved the old buildings and made them the center for the fac- 
ulties of art and divinity for which they were appropriate. The 
chapel's ancient double-crowned toAver, surmounted by ball and 
cross, signifying royal patronage, peals the message of the best of 
the old to the modern, Mitchell Tower of Mareschal College ringing 
in the new. 

The modern tendencies of Aberdeen are shown in the opening- in 
1914 of the new building at King's College devoted to English and 
modern languages, and the housing in Mareschal of the Strathcona- 
Fordyce chair of agriculture, established in 11)12, through the gen- 
erosity of Lord Strathcona.^ 

1 Rait. Robert Sangster, "The T^niviTsitics of AluMdooii." .Tnmos Oordoii Bassolt, Alior- 
(leeu, 181>.".. 

2 Rait, supi'a, p. 'HVi. Ilie University of l-'rascrburj;, erected 151)2, closed 1605. 

-Tor the uioderu iiiovenient iu the happy i orrelaiion of universities and agricultural 
colleses. ef, Cb. VII, "Agricultural rolleges and Schools," pp. 130-14?.. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 63 

Lord Strathcoiia's active i'eotorshi|) and his chancellorship to the 
time of his death set the name of Aberdeen in the forefront of the 
movement, that agricultural and modern subjects should be taught 
in the old universities. This is one instance of putting into practice 
the theory that higher educational institutions should not only be 
homes of knowledge, but also be leaders of thought, adapting them- 
selves to modern requirements. This theory, advanced in his pro- 
phetic rectorial address in 1899 on " Imperialism and the Unity of 
the Empire," has been brought to bear on all Scotch institutions by 
another well-knov\'n Scotch-American and later rector of St. An- 
drews and of Aberdeen. ^ Thus begins the fulfillment of Bain's vision 
of 1882. " The university stands or falls with its arts faculty. The 
university exists because the professions would stagnate without 
it, and to enlarge knowledge at all points. Its watchword is prog- 
ress."- 

EDINBURGH. 

Edinburgh, the only post-Eeformation university in Scotland, the 
youngest and largest of the Scotch university sisterhood, stands 
nearer in several respects than any of the others to American institu- 
tions. Like most of the State universities, it evolved from an arts 
faculty under State patronage and without any attempts at a resi- 
dential college system. It was the resort of the American students 
who went abroad to study, up to the time of the American Revolution. 
It is still in its clientele the most cosmopolitan of Scotch, if not of 
British, universities. Onl}^ a little more than one-half of its students 
are Scotch. The number of medical students from many countries 
is greater than that of any medical school in the British Empire. 
The city in its picturesqueness and literary fame, " the Athens of the 
north," has contributed to attract students. Almost naturally this 
is the only Scotch university having a professor of fine art and a 
faculty of music. It w'as the first British university to take up the 
study of English literature by the establishment (1760) of the pro- 
fessorship of rhetoric and English literature, made famous by its 
first occupant, Hugh Blair. The influence of this in American col-, 
leges has been great. The recognition of English among the classic 
disciplines inaugurated the " new education," introduced into Yale 
College under the elder President Dwight at the close of the eight- 
eenth century, and Blair's Rhetoric was the standard textbook for 
100 years in the colleges. 

Edinburgh has been ready to recognize newer subjects of instruc- 
tion perhaps because the creation of chairs Avas in the hands of a 
lay body, the town council, until 1858, and since then they appoint 

' Carnegie, Anrti-ew. 

Spain, Alexander, rectorial nddress, Aberdeen. 1SS'.>, p. 1^7, 



64 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

four out of the seven " curators of patronage " for many chairs. The 
multiplication of and specialization in subjects doomed " regenting," 
by which each " regent " taught every subject in the curriculum, and 
developed a genuine professoriate. The system was first finally 
changed by Edinburgh in 1708.^ 

From 1889 to 1913, inclusive, not less than 21 professorships and 
156 lectureships have been added to the staffs of instruction in the 
four universities. Most of these additions have been in modern sub- 
jects, in applied science, and more particularly in medicine. The few 
professorships compared with lectureships, and the consequent in- 
ferior representation of the latter in the councils of the university, 
is a cause of complaint.^ A lecturer in P'rench feelingly voices it, 
saying, " The Scottish universities find themselves to-day in the posi- 
tion of not possessing a single chair of modern languages or litera- 
ture." He makes the sweeping induction that the Carnegie trustees, 
despite Mr. Carnegie's wish, have done little for modern education, 
having " allowed themselves to be overruled and dictated to by the 
Scottish universities, which are the most conservative, and. in the 
opinion of many, the most reactionary bodies in the United King- 
dom."^ The disproportion between the addition of 4 professorships 
to 86 lectureships in the last 25 years at Edinburgh may convey one 
of two lessons to American colleges. Some institutions need to learn 
the virtue of thrift and of not creating improperly paid chairs, others 
not to multiply subjects of instruction before they are able to give 
them efficiently. 

In 1876 Edinburgh and St. Andrews established each a chair of 
education, still the only full chairs in Scotland. Edinburgh has just 
instituted a faculty of education.* A fresh advance is being pressed 
upon the universities and is imder consideration in the university 
councils. The teachers, through resolutions by the Educational In- 
stitute and the Secondary Education Association, wish not merely 
the recognition of " education " as a university subject but also pro- 
vision for " education " as a profession. They call for a postgraduate 
degree analogous to that in divinity, law, and engineering. Glasgow 
has regulations for a general diploma in education, also for a diploma 
with distinction open to graduates who satisfy certain requirements 
as to professional training and practical skill. Aberdeen announces 

1 Glasgow followed. 1727 ; St. Andrews, 1747 ; Mareschal College, 1753 ; and King's 
Aberdeen not till 1798, Bain, supra, p. 20. 

2 Cf. Ch. XI, " Provisions for the Faculty," pp. 184-185. 

s Sarolea, Charles, Edinburgh University, " How the Carnegie Millions are Misman- 
aged in Scotland," " Everyman," July 25, 1913, pp. 465, 466. In 1913 bequests are 
announced in Edinburgh and Glasgow toward the endowment of chairs in French and 
German. 

* Edinburgh's requirements for B. Educ, a postgraduate degree, succeeding the Scotch 
first (M. A.) degree, are a diploma of education of Edinburgh, at least one year's further 
training in educational subjects, and a complete course of not less than five years. 



SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. 65 

a higher course, qualifying; for a degree in education, will be given 
if required. These steps, corresponding to the certificate in educa- 
tion offered in connection with the first degree in many American 
colleges, do not go far enough to satisfy the recent demand, which 
hopes that education will come to its own as a profession with gradu- 
ate study and degree. Many would go beyond an M. A. degree with 
honors in education and institute a doctorate in education, corre- 
sponding with the Ph. D. and D. Litt., and thus greatly enhance the 
status of the teaching profession.^ 

There is here a confirmation of the usage of the American Ph. D. 
for teachers and a possible hint for the more specialized degree of 
doctor in education as a high degree for outstanding representatives 
of the teaching profession in lieu of the indiscriminate conferring of 
the LL. D. 

Edinburgh has the honor of the first chair of agriculture (1790) 
and of being the first institution in Britain to give a degree in agri- 
culture.^ As the university had the wisdom to round out its depart- 
ment of agriculture by associating itself with the Edinburgh School 
of Agriculture, so it has regulations and a curriculum for the degrees 
of B. Sc. and D. Sc. in Veterinary Science by association with the 
"Royal (Dick) Veterinary College." Similarly, the university has 
rounded out its engineering department for the degrees of civil, 
mechanical, and electrical engineering in conjunction with the 
Heriot-Watt College.' 

Among the most modern movements, the university instituted in 
1905 the diploma in tropical medicine and hygiene open to graduates 
in medicine and surgery, and under certain conditions to registered 
practitioners. A special certificate in diseases of tropical climates 
is also obtainable. Regulations for a diploma in psychiatry rep- 
resent one of the latest advances which should encourage the few 
institutions in the United States undertaking this work. A happy 
hint of combination courses in arts and law is contained in the three 
chairs common to both the faculties, constitutional law and consti- 
tutional history (1719), commercial and political economy, and mer- 
cantile law (1871), and ancient history and paleography (1901). 
The faculty of science, embracing also applied science with 13 chairs, 
has 2 chairs in common with the faculty of arts and 7 with the 
faculty of medicine. This interlocking of faculties preserves the 
common university spirit in an age of intense specilization. 

1 University of Glasgow, Gen. Council Reports, Apr. 29, 1914, pp. 34, 36; Oct. 27, 1915, 
pp. 24-27. Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," pp. 210-21.1. 

2 Cf. Ch. VII, "Agricultural Colleges and Schools," p. 139. 

' »Cf. Ch. XIII, "Coordination of Institutions," pp. 198-199. 

89687°— Bull. 16—17 5 



66 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The university old building of stone, " simple and dignified," with 
its great quadrangle dating from the early nineteenth century, illus- 
trates a common mistake of urban universities in not providing for 
extension and ample grounds. The new buildings therefore are 
scattered through the city. The importance of an outward sign of 
the unity of the university and of a common meeting place and 
academic ceremonial is taught by " an architectural monument not 
excelled by any academic building in the country." This is not say- 
ing too much of the university hall, named after its donor "M'Ewan 
Hall," in a land abounding with spacious and dignified university 
halls and considered one of the first necessities by every university.^ 

The prominence of the university in medicine has led the Car- 
negie Trust to set aside $50,000 toward the joint scheme for the crea- 
tion of an institute of niedical research as a memorial to Lord 
Lister — another recent example to schools of medicine of the value 
of research in connection with universities rather than in separate 
institutes. 

Edinburgh has instituted means for preserving and extending the 
cosmopolitan atmosphere characteristic of every university. It has 
international academic committees, one of the senatus and the other 
of the students' representative council, to give information to for- 
eigners desirous of studying in the university and to Edinburgh 
University students intending to study in foreign universities. 

The students' committee maintains a unique system of inter- 
national academic consuls at the chief European universities, to 
whom it issues letters of introduction. In accordance with ancient 
Scottish traditions of close relations with France there is also a 
Franco-Scottish society to assist French students in Scotland and 
Scottish students in France. The university is just receiving a 
bequest, the annual income of which is to be applied to the establish- 
ment of scholarships for research in the history and development of 
the religions of eastern peoples, which is another significant recog- 
nition of cosmopolitanism in Scotland, 

1 The hall of theater form, and of the early Italian renaissance style harmonizing 
with the other university new buildings, seating 2,600 people, was finished in 1897, at 
a cost of about $575,000. 



Chapter III. 

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.* 



The University of London is siii generis, and still in the making. 
Despite an attempt in the sixteenth - century, London is almost the 
last of world capitals to found a university, and it is still in the 
hands of a departmental committee following the royal commis- 
sion. During the four-score years of its existence it has been 
repeatedly reconstituted and has tried manifold experiments, mak- 
ing it prolific of suggestions. It was the first of modern uni- 
versities in the Empire, and more specifically of the newer or 
civic universities. In its primordial germ, University College, 
may be traced the Scotch influence of the Universities of Edinburgh 
and Glasgow. In 1825 Thomas Campbell, the poet, wrote a letter 
to Mr. Henry Brougham, lord rector of the University of Glasgow, 
urging the foundation of a great London University. A number of 
prominent Protestant nonconformists, who were considering the es- 
tablishment of a college without religious tests then required at Ox- 
ford and Cambridge, became subscribers w^ith Campbell and his 
friends to form an " association, or institution, by and under the 
name of The Proprietors of the University of London," and by 1827 
had raised the capital sum of $800,000. Oxford and Cambridge were 
successful in opposing the granting of a charter. Nevertheless, Uni- 
versity College, under the title The University of London, was opened 
in 1828 w^ithout a charter.^ University College was the first to open 
English university education to students of all religions, races, and 
nationalities. At that time, naturally, a rival institution was founded 
in King's College, " as a college in which instruction in the doctrines 
and duties of Christianity as taught by the Church of England 
should be forever combined with other branches of useful education." 
Excepting for their distrust of a purely secular education, the found- 

1 See tables 4 and 5. 

2 In 1548 Sir Thomas Grcshani endowed seven professorships and gave his mansion 
for those unable to go to Oxford and Cambridge, and we still have Gresham College. 
Stowe's "Annales," 1615, refers to the three famous Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, 
and London. In 1647 an anonymous " Lover of his Nation " proposed a University of 
London teaching not only Latin and Greek and Hebrew, but also the modern languages 
by the conversational method. " The Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in 
England," by Foster Watson, London, 1909, p. 482. 

»Cf. pp. 72-76. 

67 



68 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

ers of King's represented the same progressive movements as those 
of University College, to widen the range of subjects taught in the 
universities and to reduce the expense of a university education. 
King's under royal and State-church patronage had little difficulty 
in securing a charter in 1829, while its earlier proprietary nonsecta- 
rian rival suffered delays. In the end the Government patched up 
a compromise which has had unexpected and far-reaching results. 
The same day on w^hich University College received its charter, 
a third body politic by the name of the University of London was 
sealed with power to examine and confer degrees on certificated 
students from University and King's Colleges and other institutions. 
Naturally the university exercised widely its power of recognizing 
institutions which sought the privilege of granting certificates to 
students seeking degrees. The senate had no visitorial authority 
and could only test the efficiency of the institutions by the examina- 
tions of their students.^ Thus the university became known as the 
Examining Body of students from numerous and unequal schools 
privileged to grant certificates of attendance. The result was the 
charter of 1858, practically abolishing the exclusive connection of 
the university with the affiliated institutions and opening its degrees 
to all males able to pass its examination, excepting that in the case 
of medical degrees evidence of attendance and clinical practice at 
some medical institution was still required. The abolition of re- 
quired collegiate attendance made it desirable "to seek other guar- 
antees for continuous study." Intermediate examinations were 
added to the final and the tests made more severe, exalting on the 
scholastic side the value of a London degree in the eyes of the public. 
An era of expansion immediately followed. Candidates for ma- 
triculation rapidly increased. The university, which from the be- 
ginning had required English in addition to Latin and Greek for 
matriculation, now included English philology and literature in 
the examinations for degrees and honors in arts. It was the first to 
confer the degree of doctor of literature. It organized for the first 
time in England a faculty of science, and in 1860 began to hold 
examinations for the degrees of bachelor and doctor in that faculty. 
Degrees were instituted in laws in 1867, in music in 1877. The 
university also instituted special examinations as early as 1839 in 
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, the Greek text of the New 
Testament, the evidences of the Christian religion and scripture his- 
tory, in subjects relating to Public Health (1876), and in the art, 
theory, and history of teaching. A charter of 1863 empowered the 
senate to confer the degrees of bachelor and master in surgery. In 
1867 a supplementary charter gave the power to institute special 

*■ Of. Ch. XVI, " Examinations," p. 223. 



UNIVEESITY OP LONDON. 69 

examinations for women, and the reform act of the same year gave 
the graduates the right to send one representative to Parliament. 
In 1878, imder another supplemental charter, the university be- 
came the first academic body in the United Kingdom to admit women 
as candidates for degrees. Despite these changes, there was constant 
agitation for further reforms in the university. The Royal Colleges 
of Physicians and Surgeons, realizing the opportunities for clinical 
teaching in London and the small number of university degrees 
obtained in proportion to the number of students, sought power to 
grant degrees in medicine and surgery. The association for the pro- 
motion of a teaching university for London, formed in 1884, inspired 
a petition of University and King's Colleges for a charter incorporat- 
ing a body of persons with power to grant degrees. The general 
view was that the professoriate in the colleges was hampered by 
the syllabuses and examinations prescribed by outside authority and 
lost in a measure lehrfreiheit. It was believed also that " students 
working under varied conditions " suffered from " the necessary want 
of elasticity in regulations." Moreover, it was strongly felt that a 
university should not only examine and confer degrees, but also teach 
and advance research. A visible university was sought commensu- 
rate with the capital of the Empire. Some of the advocates of re- 
form believed in the — 

establishment in London of a second university composed of colleges only and 
recognizing none but bona fide students in those colleges, the present university 
remaining an imperial institution granting degrees and honors to all comers on 
condition of examination only. 

Others objected to two universities on the ground of confusion and 
overlapping and urged the establishment of a teaching university in 
connection with the existing examining one. The Government re- 
ferred the whole question to a royal commission.^ They reported 
in favor of combining a teaching with an examining university and 
that there should be one, not two universities, and limited to institu- 
tions in or near London. They saw no reason why the university 
should not continue to admit students to its examinations and de- 
grees, irrespective of the place or manner of their education. The 
scheme was finally rejected by convocation. A new royal commis- 
sion ^ reported in 1894 that there should be one, not two, universities 
and that teaching and external examinations could be combined with- 
out injury to the students. They decided that the problem was still 
that stated by the commissioners of 1888, viz, how to coordinate the 

1 The commission, under the presidency of the late Lord Selborne, was appointed, and 
made its report in 1888. 

'The commission appointed in 1891 reported in 1894. It was known as the " Cowper 
commission," from the name of its chairman, or the " Gresham commission," because of 
the reference to It of the petition of the colleges for a separate teaching institution to be 
known as the Gresham University. 



70 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

recognized teaching institutions of London under a central uni- 
versity. After four years of further discussion in 1898 Parliament 
passed an act for the complete reconstitution of the university in 
general harmony with the recommendations of the last commission. 
The act was put into effect in 1900. But the problem of coordination 
was only partially solved. The two pioneer and great colleges, Uni- 
versity and King's, desiring to strengthen the university, especially 
the teaching side, and to secure " unity of aim and interest in all that 
relates to advanced education and the promotion of original re- 
search " proposed the incorporation of the colleges into the university. 
University College led the way and was transferred to the univer- 
sity in 1907 and King's in 1910. At the same time the Women's 
Department of King's College, founded in 1881, was incorporated 
into the University as King's College for Women. 

Thus the close of the first decade of the reconstituted university 
saw an approximation to the ideals of the founders of University 
College in the nucleus, through the incorporation of several col- 
leges, of a single teaching university, and that essentially a Federal 
one. In the same decade the new constitution had been experi- 
mentally tested in a period of rapid expansion. The old complexity 
of the university problem was increased by the extension of the 
curricula to cover general, professional, and technical education in 
a vast agglomeration of heterogeneous institutions, teachers, and 
students, as a brief glance at the outstanding features will show. 

The highest governing and the executive body is the senate, con- 
sisting of 56 members, inclusive of the chancellor and the chairman 
of convocation.^ Four are appointed by the King in council, IG 
are elected by the convocation, 16 by the teachers in the respective 
faculties, and the others, 2 each, by the incorporated colleges and 
by bodied representative of the medical, legal, and technical profes- 
sions and also of the City of London and of the London County 
Council. Within the senate are three standing committees or coun- 
cils from whom it is bound to receive reports before coming to any 
determination upon the matters specifically within the province of 
the committees. One of these is the Academic Council.- The coun- 
cil for external students advises upon all matters relating to them. 
The board to promote the extension of university teaching advises 
concerning arrangements for that work and its students and for the 
examination and inspection of secondary schools. The convocation 
consists of the graduates of the university of three years' standing 
and the members of the three councils named. It elects, besides its 
quota of members in the senate, the member of Parliament for the 

• Cf. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 162. 
«Cf. Ibid., p. 165. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 71 

university and the chancellor of the university. The convocation 
may discuss university affairs and lay their conclusions before the 
senate. The eight faculties consist of the " appointed teachers " and 
other teachers of the university admitted by the senate.^ 

The teachers are assigned to their respective faculties by the sen- 
ate and may be assigned to more than one faculty. Each faculty 
elects its own dean for a term of two years, reeligible for a second 
term. A faculty reports to the senate on any matter referred to 
it by that body and also upon courses of study, teaching, and 
degrees pertaining to that faculty, and elects its representatives in 
the senate. The boards of studies, numbering 37 in 1913, are ap- 
pointed by the senate and may include persons other than teachers 
m the university not exceeding one-fourth of the total number of a 
board. Each board may report to the senate direct, transmitting a 
copy to the dean of the faculty concerned. The academic council 
and the council for external students, before advising the senate 
upon matters within the province of the boards, are to invite and 
receive reports from them. The staff of instruction of the university 
consists of three categories. First are "the appointed teachers," 
professors, assistant professors, readers, and lecturers appointed as 
officers of the university by the senate and i^aid by the university. 
" Recognized teachers " - are those recognized by the senate among 
members of the teaching staffs of public educational institutions 
within the university's appointed radius of 30 miles, whether schools 
of the university or not. " Nonrecognized teachers " are those in 
schools of the university teaching in courses of study approved by 
the university. 

The teaching of the university is carried on in three groups of 
institutions. In the first group are those belonging to the university 
and controlled by it, either directly or through a committee; in the 
second group are " schools of the university," each controlled by 
its own governing body. They must be public educational institu- 
tions, not conducted for private profit, situated within the adminis- 
trative County of London, and providing education of university 
standard. The senate may admit the whole of such an institution 
or only a department or branch of it. The third group consists of 
other public educational institutions within the appointed radius 
having " recognized teachers."' These more than threescore institu- 
tions of different t^^pes and kinds of connection with the university 
afford some concept of the institutional complexity of the university.^ 

^ The faculties are theology, arts, laws, music, medicine, science, engineering, eco- 
nomics, and political science (including commerce and industry). 

* At the beginning of the session 1914 the number ot " appointed teachers " was 99 ; 
of " recognized teachers," 775. 

sCf. table on pp. 264-265. 



72 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The institutions described form an organic center which, by a 
system for " external students " and examinations, reaches through- 
out the Empire. " Internal students " are those who have matricu- 
lated at the university and who are pursuing a course of study 
approved by the university, under the direct control of the univer- 
sity, or in one or more schools of it, or under one or more of its 
recognized teachers. " External students " are all other matricu- 
lated students. They may pursue their studies where and how they 
please. This gives an opportunity not only to " university colleges " 
but also to private institutions and individuals far and near to pre- 
pare their students for London University examinations and degrees. 
Not only have coaching or tutorial centers sprung up but what are 
now widely known as correspondence schools. 

An unlimited number of unaffiliated institutions is brought within 
the shadow of the university by the provincial and colonial examina- 
tions. A provincial institution requesting it may be named as a 
local center for one or more examinations to be carried on simulta- 
neously with examinations in London under the supervision of sub- 
examiners appointed by the senate. Similarly examinations are held 
in any colony upon application of its authorities. The influence of 
the university is consciously extended to the utmost bounds of the 
Empire. The hugeness of the university may be measured by the 
number of candidates and passes for matriculation for the several 
degrees and for diplomas in pedagogy since the foundation of the 
university. From 1838 to 1912, inclusive, the number of candidates 
was 262,452, of whom 137,855 passed. The annual number of all 
examinees (1913-14) was 11,920, of whom 6,343 were successful. To 
the extramural activities of the university, with their ramifications 
throughout the Empire, one must add the work of university exten- 
sion carried on in the metropolitan area, with 120 courses, and 100 or 
more school examinations or inspections.^ 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. 

For the purposes of the present study the sketch of the evolution 
of the university must be supplemented by a glance at three or four 
of the institutions which have been prominent factors in its develop- 
ment. The first of these is the University College, London, the 
original teaching institution of the university.^ It surrendered its 
previous title of the University of London to the new examining 
body in 1836 upon the condition that it should be one of the schools 
named in the charter of the university as entitled to send up candi- 

» Cf. Ch. XIX, " University Extension Teaching," p. 249. 

*Cf. "Notes and Materials for the History of University College, London, Faculties 
of Arts and Science." Edited, W. P. Ker, 1898 (London). 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 73 

dates for degrees. It remained a proprietary corporation with its 
own charter in a " practical connection, not an organic or constitu- 
tional connection." The college had legally the constitution of a 
joint stock commercial company. The proprietors originally elected 
from among their number a council of 24 persons to have the man- 
agement and control of the university and its property, the appoint- 
ment of professors, " and to regulate the whole plan or course of 
education." By 1842 shares that had lapsed or had been ceded to 
the council were bestowed upon former students of the college who 
had graduated with honors, making those upon whom shares were 
thus conferred proprietors for life, with the title of " Fellows of 
University College, London." Nevertheless, the number of pro- 
prietors naturally diminished in time. To provide for the perma- 
nent existence of the college as a public educational institution the 
council obtained an act of Parliament in 1869 reincorporating the 
college and divesting it of its proprietary character. 

It is important to note that the council continued as the executive, 
and provision was made for a succession of fellows. It is still more 
important to note that in 1886 for the first time three professors of 
the college were elected members of the council and the number 
increased in 1888 to six, at which number it has remained. The im- 
portant development of the principal and practice of the representa- 
tion of the teaching staff upon the governing board of an institution 
is illustrated by the constitution of the college committee. When 
(1907) the college was incorporated into the University of London,^ 
while the power and property of the college corporation were trans- 
ferred to the university senate, there was constituted a college com- 
mittee to advise the senate and to superintend the work carried on 
upon the college premises. One-quarter of the college committee of 
24 members, elected annually by the senate, were members of the 
"professorial board," ^ elected after a report of the board. The 
preservation of the lay element was insured by the provision that of 
the remaining three-fourths of the committee not more than one- 
third should be teachers of the university. The further representa- 
tion of the university is secured by the right of the vice chancellor, 
the principal of the university, and the provost of the college ap- 
pointed by the senate to attend and speak, but not to vote at meet- 
ings of the committee. The treasurer of the college is appointed by 
the senate from the membership of the college committee. The col- 
lege committee submits to the senate a financial estimate for each 
ensuing year, and the senate allocates to the committee funds, the 
expenditure of which it controls for the purposes of the college. The 
committee of the college has conferred upon it by the senate the 



set Ch, XIII, "Coordination of Institutions," p. 195. «Cf. p. 74. 



74 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

powers usually exercised by the governing body of a school of the 
university. The senate must take into consideration a report of the 
college committee before changing any statute or retaliation relating 
to the management of the college. 

The representation of the college on the senate was provided for 
by the co-option by the senate of two representatives of the college 
after consideration of a report from the college committee. The 
college committee became the nexus between the senate and the teach- 
ing staff by the establishment of a professorial board for the pur- 
poses of the statutes and of advising and making suggestions to the 
college committee on all academical matters and on the general 
management of the college. The professorial board consists of the 
provost, the librarian, the professors and all persons appointed as 
readers, lecturers, assistant professors, or granted the title of as- 
sistant professor, nominated to be members of the board by the 
senate upon report from the professorial board. The professorial 
board is represented on any board of advisors of the senate in the 
election of professors, readers, or lecturers to teach exclusively in 
the college buildings. The professorial board also reports to the 
college committee on any proposal to appoint an assistant professor, 
reader, or teacher other than an assistant or demonstrator. The pro- 
fessorial board is divided into college faculties by the senate upon 
a report from the college committee. The provost has the right to 
attend and speak at the meetings of any faculty. Each faculty elects 
annually, by ballot, one of its members as dean. Communications 
from the college committee to the faculties are made through their 
respective deans. 

Especially noteworthy is the care taken for the appointment of 
the teaching staff upon merit and the ingenious coordination of all 
the bodies concerned. A board of advisers is constituted when pro- 
fessors, assistant professors, and readers are to be appointed. The 
board consists of the vice chancellor, the principal of the university, 
the provost, and six persons, of whom three are " external experts," 
chosen by the senate of the university, and three appointed by the 
senate on the nomination of the professorial board. The three ap- 
pointed by the senate on the nomination of the professorial board are 
selected with reference to the post to be filled. The advisory board 
in nominating a candidate are bound to have regard to his contribu- 
tion by research to the advancement of science or learning, his powers 
as a teacher, and generally his eminence in his subject or his profes- 
sion. The report of the board is sent simultaneously to the academic 
council and to the professorial board. The academic council, after 
receiving a report from the professorial board, forward the report 
of the board of advisers, with the council's comments, to the senate, 
who make the appointment. The senate, however, may appoint an 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 75 

assistant professor after receiving a report from the college com- 
mittee through the academic council. Every proposal for appointing 
an assistant professor in any department must originate with the 
head of the department, he having submitted the question for con- 
sideration to the professorial board. In like manner the college 
committee may recommend to the senate to institute or to discontinue 
any professorship, assistant professorship, or readership. 

The governmental devices by which the college preserved its con- 
tinuity and increased its in*fiuence in the bosom of the university are 
only less suggestive than the realization of the scope of the college 
" as a place o:^ teaching and research in which wide academic culture 
may be secured by the variety of the subjects taught in different fac- 
ulties, including preliminary and intermediate medical studies." It 
has been the pathfinder of modern colleges in the Empire, and 
together with King's College has leavened the lump of the university. 
It has developed the professoriate, organized with departments as 
units and with representation of the entire teaching staff even in the 
supreme govei;ning body. It is modern in its range of instruction, 
recognizing the newer subjects as upon an equality with the older 
and organizing professional and technical faculties side by side with 
the arts faculty. It has been the model of the newer nonsectarian, 
nonpartisan, nonresidential, and coeducational semi-State institu- 
tions. It has cherished the spirit of modern research ^ so that in 
1913-14 it had 450 postgraduate and research students, the largest 
number in any institution in the Empire. This may not be attrib- 
uted chiefly to the college's happy location, but to its spirit, conduct, 
and increased means, especially since 1902. The spirit descends from 
the founders, who laid great stress upon the possibility of ascertain- 
ing the " conditions of human happiness and well-being " by special 
studies. The multiplication and subdivision, with increased speciali- 
zation in subjects of study, have developed chairs into departments 
equipped with departmental libraries and research laboratories and 
museums. Reference to some subjects will illustrate. 

With the introduction of the latest studies, the humanities have not 
been forgotten. They have been strengthened by chairs or lecture- 
ships in archeology, comparative philology, Sanskrit, architecture, 
the fine arts, and incidentally by Germanic and romance philology. 
English was a required subject from the earliest days of the insti- 
tution and has had a line of famous teachers. In addition to the 
modern European languages an echo of the imperial note is caught 
from the list of modern oriental languages.^ The attempt to keep 

1 Cf. Ch. XV, "Advanced Study and Research without Graduate Schools. 

2 The list includes Arabic, Bengali, Burmese, Gujarati. Hindi, Hindustani, Marathl, 
Pali, and Buddhist Uterature, Persian, Tamil and Telugu, and Tibetan. The list is sup- 
plemented by notice of instruction at King's College in . the following languages : 
Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Turl^ish, Swahili, Malay, Hausa, and Zulu. 



76 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

lip with the progress of the times in the introduction of new disci- 
plines may be culled from the provost's annual report.^ An experi- 
mental phonetics laboratory has been opened for the department of 
phonetics. This department acts as an auxiliary to all the language 
departments and includes instruction in spoken English. The work 
of the department of history will be extended this year by the insti- 
tution of a lectureship in American and colonial history — the first 
permanent provision for instruction in this subject in Great Britain. 

The purchase of the Flinders-Petrie 'collection for the college's 
famous department of Egyptology, of which Prof, Flinders-Petrie 
is the head, also brings to light the value of fieldwork associated with 
a college department. A staff of as many as 10 workers has been 
maintained in Egypt, making collections and contributions to publi- 
cations possible. Somewhat analogous for purposes of research is 
the increased attention given to fieldwork in the sciences, an instance 
of which is the establishment of a field laboratory for the department 
of botany. 

The college maintains its policy of welcoming modern subjects to 
its curriculum. In the department of applied statistics and eugenics, 
equipped by its biometric laboratory, applied statistics will be recog- 
nized as one of the subjects for a bachelor of science degree. Mili- 
tary science also is one of the subjects for a pass degree. The latest 
departure is the institution of the department of heating and ventilat- 
ing engineering.^ 

The college's policy of expansion, the necessity that it should be 
free from debt in order to be incorporated into the university, and its 
faith in the State shown by this act, have not only secured State aid, 
but also enlarged support from private munificence; $1,000,000 have 
been raised in the fund for the advancement of university education 
and research, inaugurated in 1902 with a view to the incorporation 
of the college and followed by gifts from individuals and city 
companies.^ 

The event of the twenty- first anniversary of the Student's Union 
Society was the occasion of the provost's report taking up the social 
and athletic side of the college activities, which brings to mind the 
rise of the problem of corporate life in nonresidential colleges, treated 
in the chapter on student life.* 

ijuly 2, 1914. 

*The first professor of town-planning Is about to be appointed. 

' At tlie end of 1912 tlie equipment and endowment fund appeal committee reported 
total receipts of $2,092,050 expended to pay a debt and for the medical and boys' schools 
as well as for the college. In addition are increases in annual grants for terms of years 
for $50,000. They now appeal for $669,810 as urgently needed. The London County 
Council has just made a grant of $150,000 toward this. 

«Cf. pp. 239-248. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON". 77 

KING'S COLLEGE. 

King's College, the second college incorporated in the university, 
shared with University College in the movement for the creation 
of a teaching university between the years 1880 and 1900. Thus the 
way was prepared for the substitution of cooperation in place of 
competition between the colleges after 80 years of rivalry. The 
organization of King's before its incorporation in the University of 
London, effected in 1910, and its administration since then are essen- 
tially the same as in University College.^ The theological depart- 
ment of the college was not incorporated in the University of 
London, but was constituted a school of the university, remaining 
under the government of the council of the college, of which it 
forms a part for certain purposes. All students of the college have 
the right to attend the chapel. An act of 1903 had abolished, except 
in the faculty of theology, the obligation for the teaching staff and 
members of the council to be members of the Church of England. 
When King's abolished the religious test the original point of 
difference between the two colleges largely disappeared. The pass- 
ing of a theological age has brought home to King's the worth of 
freedom with a religious atmosphere and to University College the 
worth of reverential faith with freedom. 

It should be noted, however, that the university itself, though non- 
sectarian, acknowledges religion. It has its faculty of theology, not 
supported by the State but by the different denominations. On 
presentation days a service under the auspices of the students is 
held in Westminster Abbey, attended by the officials of the univer- 
sity, the teachers, and those taking their degrees, attendance being 
voluntary. 

King's Coilege has always been a multiform institution. Origi- 
nally it consisted of a " senior department " and " junior depart- 
ment," and almost immediately a medical department was added. 
The institution was responsive to popular demands. "In 1838, 
owing largely to the development in engineering caused by the growth 
of the railway system, an engineering department was founded." 
This was enlarged into a department of applied sciences. In 1839 
the first hospital was built. In 1847 the theological department was 
added. In 1856 evening classes were formed and became one of the 
largest departments of the college, until cut down by the rise of poly- 
technic schools. Naturally King's, with its church relationship, en- 
tered upon this work. The movement for metropolitan evening 
classes originated with a clergyman of the Church of England, who 
announced in 1848 classes in Crosby Hall. The purpose of a com- 
mittee of clergymen in opening evening classes " where instruction 

»Cf. Ch. XIII, ' Coordination of Institutions," p. 195. 



78 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

in the languages, arts, and sciences may be given in a familiar form 
at an easy rate " was " to improve the moral, intellectual, and spirit- 
ual condition of young men in the metropolis." The City of London 
College, acting in conjunction with the London Chamber of Com- 
merce, continues as a monument of their movement. 

King's College went to the length of forming classes to prepare 
for the examination for the home civil service, and ultimately the 
Strand School was organized for the purpose. In 1861 an oriental 
section was started and temporarily prepared for the examination 
for the Indian civil service. In 1877 classes held for women in Ken- 
sington originated the movement which resulted in the establishment 
in 1885 of the " ladies' department," in 1892 knoAvn as the " Avomen's 
department," now King's College for Women, with its latest devel- 
opment of a household and social science department. The last is 
the first university department of its kind in this country. The 
statement of the college is justified in saying that it is — 

distinguished for the readiness with which it adopted new developments. The 
engineering school is one of the oldest in the United Kingdom. King's College 
was the first institution in London to develop evening teaching of an advanced 
type. The Wheatstone laboratory of physics is older than any students' labora- 
tory of the kind in England or Germany. The laboratories of comparative 
pathology and bacteriology and the William Siemens laboratory of electrical 
engineering were among the first in these subjects to be started in London. 

Though the large attendance at the college was reduced by the 
act of incorporation, setting up the standard of university level for 
students and resulting in the separation of King's College school, 
the Strand School, and the civil-service department from the college, 
it continues its popular character by the retention of evening classes, 
its department for the training of teachers, and its provision for 
"occasional" students. The spirit of the original foundation by 
the church may survive in the terminal reports sent to the parents 
or guardians of students and " the collections " ^ at the end of each 
term. Herein it has one of the best features of a college, while, like 
University College, with its various faculties and schools, it is a 
germinal or collegiate university. The scheme for intercollegiate 
classes among these colleges and the school of economics is a proof 
of new cooperation and a promise of the growth of the university. 

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. 

The nucleus of the university on the teaching side has been greatly 
enlarged by the 31 " schools of the university " related to it since its 
reconstruction in 1900. Especially has it been stimulated by the 

* " Collections " are gatherings at which every student is required to be present and 
be individually interviewed by the principal and staff as to his progress. This old prac- 
tice of some Oxford colleges was introduced at King's by Principal Headlam. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 79 

Imperial College of Science and Technology, a " school of the uni- 
versity," in science and engineering. This strong independent foun- 
dation in the opinion of some should be made a separate " technical 
university." On the other hand, the article in its charter of incor- 
poration in 1907 establishing it " in the first instance as a school 
of the university pending the settlement of the question of the incor- 
poration " looks forward to its becoming a college within the uni- 
versity. The article provides that the governing body " shall enter 
into communication with the University of London with regard to 
the coordination of the work of the Imperial College with the w^ork 
of the university and its other schools." 

The history of the Imperial College and its present organization 
are a fine example of the process of coordination of London institu- 
tions. The Imperial College is really a group of associated colleges 
under a common board of governors. The integral parts are the 
Koyal College of Science, the Eoyal School of Mines, and the City 
and Guilds (Engineering) College. The governing body consists of 
40 members representing the Crown, the board of education, the 
University of Londoh, the London County Council, the City and 
Guilds of London Institute, the royal commissioners of the exhibi- 
tion of 1851, the Royal Society, the professorial staff of the Imperial 
College, and representatives of learned societies connected with indus- 
tries. A delegacy of 19 members administers the City and Guilds 
(Engineering) College. 

The Royal College of Science and Royal School of Mines are re- 
sults of the great exhibition of 1851, which awakened England to 
the importance of technical and art education. Chameleon-like, the 
original institutions have undergone a succession of changes respon- 
sive to their progressive environment. It started in 1851, known 
as the Government school of mines and science applied to the arts, 
and located in connection with the museum of practical geology. 
In 1853, at the time of the foundation of the Government depart- 
ment of science and art, to meet a demand for widening the scope 
of the schools, it having also taken over the " Royal College of 
Chemistry," earlier founded by private enterprise, it was renamed 
the " Metropolitan School of Science applied to Mining and the 
Arts." In 1859 the general and technical divisions of the school 
were abolished, and the title was altered to " the Government school 
of mines," in 18G3 changed to the Royal School of Mines. In 1864, 
at the request of the board of admiralty, a " Royal School of Naval 
Architecture and Marine Engineering" was established at South 
Kensington in connection with the Royal School of Mines, which 
was transferred to the Royal Naval College at Greenwich in 1873. 
In 1869 summer courses for teachers were commenced. By 1873 the 
expenses even of teachers were paid, and a free education was given 



80 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

them at the school. By 1881 a training school for science teachers 
was established, and the title of the institution was changed to " The 
Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines." In 1882 a 
department of agriculture was added and existed till 1897, by which 
time it appeared that this work should be in agricultural colleges 
located on the land. In 1890 the title of the Normal School of 
Science was changed to that of the " Eoyal College of Science," and 
under this name was incorporated with the Royal School of Mines. 
The third associated college, " The City and Guilds (Engineering) 
College," is the offspring of the " City and Guilds of London Insti- 
tute for the Advancement of Technical Education," formed in 1878 
by the livery companies of the city of London in conjunction with 
the corporation. The institute was founded and housed in 1884 in 
South Kensington, as a " central technical college," to provide more 
advanced courses in engineering and technical chemistry applied to 
productive industry than those offered by the city and guilds college 
at Finsbury. In 1889 it was included as a school of the university 
in engineering and became the engineering section of the Imperial 
College, under the name of "The City and Guilds (Engineering) 
College." 

The charter of the Imperial College contemplated a central insti- 
tution of the highest rank and capable, like the university of stand- 
ardizing and affiliating technical colleges. It reads: 

The purposes of the Imperial College are to give the highest specialized 
instruction and to provide the fullest equipment for the most advanced training 
and research in various branches of science, especially In its application to 
industry. 

The governing body is empowered to " establish colleges or other 
institutions or departments of instruction " which " shall be integral 
parts of the Imperial College." In 1909, under power given by 
the charter, the governing body of the Imperial College recognized 
the metallurgical department of the University of Sheffield as being 
in association with the Imperial College for the advanced metal- 
lurgy of iron and steel, and the recognition was allowed by the King 
in council. In 1912 the governing body, moved by a request from 
the Huddersfield Technical College, determined to adopt the policy 
of visiting an institution applying for the recognition of its courses 
of study, and of approving the desired courses and accepting them 
in lieu of first or second year Imperial College courses. The pro- 
vision of the charter calling for communication with the Univer- 
sity of London with regard to the coordination of the work of the 
college with the work of the university and its other schools has 
borne fruit in the establishment of a joint committee in engineering 
of the university and of the college, and a program of work has 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON". 81 

been accepted by the university and the college to avoid unnecessary 
overlapj)ing. 

Similarly, annual conferences have been arranged among the heads 
of the departments of science, other than engineering, in University, 
Kings, and Imperial Colleges, and such other schools of the 
university as may be v^illing to cooperate to consider the proposals 
with regard to the work of such departments. Intercollegiate ar- 
rangements have also been made among the above-named institu- 
tions, and students may be admitted on the recommendation of the 
professor under whom they are working to any corresponding special 
course at any other of the above colleges. It is reported the above 
schemes do not work very perfectly. The difficulty of the coordi- 
nation of curricula is heightened by a characteristic feature of the 
Imperial College to have a student engaged in one subject of study 
during a complete half session. Coordination is sought by the col- 
lege by concentrating there the advancetl and postgraduate courses. 
This policy is favored by the traditions of the college, with its 
Huxley laboratory of research, founded in memory of him as the 
first dean of the college, and by the provision of a research labora- 
tory in each department. The college has unparalleled conveniences 
for investigation in its proximity to the science division of the Vic- 
toria and Albert Museum, the Natural History Museum, and the 
Imperial Institute. In its scientific laboratories, equipment and 
buildings, the Imperial College excels any of the other institutions 
in London and is one of the greatest in the world.^ In conclusion, 
one may infer that the imperial multiform college, as yet only a 
school of the university, in contrast with the incorporated University 
and King's Colleges, may become one of the greatest unifying or 
disruptive factors for the university, and therefore it is specifically 
mentioned next to the incorporated colleges in the terms of refer- 
ence to the royal commission of 1909. 

The commission in its report recommends that the Imperial 
College be made a constituent college of the university, and the 
establishment of a self-governing faculty of technology, with repre- 
sentatives from the different colleges, as well as of experts outside 
the colleges.^ Sir Alfred Keogh, rector of the Imperial College, 
commented favorably upon the report. It gave to the masters of 
industry a direct voice in the education of scientific men. It 
imposed upon the university the duty of developing science in rela- 
tion to industry. It would compensate the Imperial College for giv- 
ing up the idea of becoming a great " technical university " by the 

* The capital value of the lands and buildings available for the college is estimated to 
exceed five million dollars. 

*Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education." 

89687°— Bull. 16—17 6 



82 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

establishment of their principles and the extension of their influ- 
ence within a future single multi-college university in a city of 
7,000,000 inhabitants, and thus make the largest university in the 
world.^ 

THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. 

The London School of Economics and Political Science, although 
one of the newest schools in the university, has had such a rapid de- 
velopment that the royal commission has recommended that it be 
among the first " constituent colleges " in the reconstituted university. 
It is incorporated as a company, limited by guarantee, and without 
power of taking profits. The members of the corporation, limited to 
the total number of 100, constitute the court of governors and admin- 
ister the school through a council of management numbering 20 
members. The head of the school is a director in whom very large 
powers have been vested. To this fact "the smooth working and 
progress of the school are largely due."^ The regular staff of lec- 
turers at the school serve on the " professorial council," under the 
presidency of the director, in order to advise the governors on any 
matters connected with the school curriculum and students. 

The school was purposely not given a fixed and inelastic constitu- 
tion in order that it might keep in close touch with the needs of the 
professional and business classes and be able easily to adjust itself 
to the changing conditions of the University of London. In this 
manner the small committee formed in ISOl has grown into the 
present court of governors, and the school opened in 1895 was admit- 
ted as a school of the university in 1900. The origin and progress of 
the school are due to the response to a long-felt need vigorously 
voiced in 1894. The Gresham University commissioners in that year 
pointed out "the imperative and urgent need for supplying to the 
students in the London University " the kind of education provided 
in France by the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques. The same year 
a committee of the economic science and statistics section of the 
British Association reported that they "could not but regard the 
condition of economic studies at the universities and colleges as un- 
satisfactory. As contrasted with continental countries and also with 
the United States, the United Kingdom possesses no regular system." 
In the absence of any system of commercial education of a uni- 
versity type, the founders planned for — 

a system of higher education wliich stands in the same relation to the life and 
calling of the manufacturer, the merchant, and other men of business as the 

* Sir A. Keogh's Inaugural address as president of the Association of Technical Insti- 
tutions. The Times, London, Jan. 31, 1914. 

- Report to the senate on th'j organization and administration of the schools of the 
university with reference to the London School of Economics and Political Science, Jan., 
1914, p. 4. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON". 83 

medical schools of the universities to that of the doctor ; a system, that is, 
which provides a scientific training in the structure and organization of modern 
history and commei'ce and the general causes and criteria of prosperity as 
they are illustrated and explained in the policy and experience of the British 
Empire and foreign countries. 

It is a school of the university in the faculty of economics only, 
but certain courses of lectures are recognized in the faculties of arts, 
laws, and science. The work of the school extends over political 
science (including commerce and industry). In addition to these de- 
partments, several special branches of instruction have sprung up. 
There is a course of lectures in administrative subjects to equip offi- 
cers for the higher appointments on the administrative staff of the 
Army and for the charge of departmental services. The officers are 
selected for the purpose by the War Office. Special lectures have 
been added in order to provide the teaching required by candidates 
for the degree of B. Sc. in the faculty of economics and political 
science with honors in Transport. These lectures are also attended 
by some 400 students drawn from the staffs of the great railway 
companies. In connection with the extensive library, lectures have 
been add^d in the subject of librarianship. The method of utilizing 
the British Museum, the public record office, and other collections is 
explained, and brief bibliographies are supplied and opportunities 
afforded for the source method of the study of history. The breadth 
of the school, botli on the lower practical and the higher research side, 
is displayed by the addition to the staff of lecturers of British and 
foreign economists and professors, who supplement the courses at 
the school with short courses on their subjects. Lectures by dis- 
tinguished men engaged in public life or administration are also 
secured. Besides the matriculants of the University of London, for 
whom courses are given leading to degrees, the school is open to those 
who have not matriculated and do not wish to pursue a full university 
course. The nonmatriculants are young bankers, accountants, rail- 
way administrators, business men, social workers, civil servants, 
municipal officials, journalists and librarians, candidates for the 
consular service, factory inspectorships, and board of trade appoint- 
ments. 

The world fame of the school rests upon its facilities for investi- 
gation and research. It has 29 research studentships. The greatest 
attraction for the research student is its library of some 300,000 
items, confined to the school's field of study, and unique in the 
world. It seeks to have a complete collection of governmental publi- 
cations and official reports of all civilized countries. The Con- 
gressional Library of the United States has made it a library of 
deposit for congressional documents in London, and various depart- 
ments of AnTerican States have done the same. Its collection of 



84 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

municipal documents, presented by more than 300 municipalities 
throughout the world, is unequaled in any other country. It is also 
unique in its special collection made by experts of material illus- 
trating particular subjects, like trades-unionism, transportation, and 
socialism. The proximity of one of the greatest libraries in the 
world in the British Museum is another advantage of the school. 
Research is encouraged by individual supervision of students and by 
seminars. Original work is furthered, for example, under the aus- 
pices of the committee of the advanced historical teaching fund by 
lectures on "sources" and the compilation of classified lists. An- 
other stimulus to advanced work is the publication by the school of 
" Studies in Economics and Political Science." 

We can now understand why professors and teachers from uni- 
versities in many lands, especially from Germany and the United 
States, have resorted from time to time to this modestly housed school 
in a corner of Clare Market, and why it was next to the largest in 
the number of graduate students among the institutions of the Em- 
pire in 1913.^ The school is continuing its rapid development. A 
school of sociology and social economics which had been carried on 
by itself for nine years was merged in the school of economics and 
political science in 1912. In 1912-13 a chair of ethnology was created 
in the University of London, tenable in the school of economics. This 
fulfills a wish of the Haldane commission that a department of eth- 
nology should be established as a necessary adjunct to the school of 
oriental studies, it being almost as important that officials in parts of 
the Empire inhabited by non-European races should have a knowl- 
edge of their racial characteristics as that they should be acquainted 
with their speech. One of the latest developments is the arrange- 
ment of the school with University and King's Colleges for inter- 
collegiate courses in subjects of imperial interest. 

If the recommendations of the Haldane commission were carried 
out to make the school of economics the only constituent college in 
the faculty of economics with an adequate enlargement of its funds, 
staff, buildings, and equipment, and with the removal to it of the 
40,000 books and tracts of the unparalleled Goldsmiths' Library of 
Economic Literature, it would certainly be the world's model institu- 
tion of the kind. It could hardly be surpassed, having in addition to 
its full university connection and libraries all London as a laboratory 
for its practical work. It certainly makes it clear that at least every 
great urban university should have some school of the kind. 

1 Members of the teaching staff of the following universities in the United States have 
attended the school : Bryn Mawr, California, Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, 
Harvard, Illinois, Johns Hopkins, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Princeton, 
Eadcliffe, Leland Stanford, Syracuse, Washington, Wisconsin, Yale. Of the 304 grad- 
uate students (1912-13) of the school, there were, from Oxford, 33 ; Cambridge, 34 ; 
London, 143 ; Scotland, 10 ; Ireland, 9 ; Wales, 13. These 304 students constitute nearly 
15 per cent of the total attendance. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 85 

A GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS BELONGING TO THE UNIVERSITY, 

I. Brown Animal Sanatory Institution. i. Physiological Laboratory. 
3. Francis Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics. 4. Goldsmiths* 
College. 

1. The Brown Animal Sanatory Institution was the only depart- 
ment connected with research possessed by the old examining Uni- 
versity of London. It was established in 1871, through the first note- 
worthy bequest to the university, made in 1852. Up to 1900, during 
the 64 years' existence of the university as a mere examining body, it 
Avas the great exception for it to receive a gift. By the terms of the 
bequest it was to be " an institution for investigating, studying, and, 
without charge beyond immediate expenses, endeavoring to cure 
maladies, distempers, and injuries any quadrupeds or birds useful 
to man may be found subject to." The institution has proved true 
the declaration of the master of the rolls " that this is a good charity, 
a gift peculiarly connected with what is useful, and for the advantage 
of mankind." The hospital from the beginning to 1913 has treated a 
total number of about 169,000 patients, the great majority of which 
were horses, dogs, and cats. About 6,000 patients are now treated 
annually. Incidentally, the institution became a fountainhead of 
postgraduate study and research in the university. In the laboratory 
researches tending to throw light on the diseases of animals are con- 
ducted systematically, and a long line of distinguished workers in 
pathology and physiology have availed themselves of the oppor- 
tunities of the laboratories. Provisions are made for the admission 
of clinical students to the hospital and research students to the lab- 
oratory. Valuable investigations are carried out for public bodies 
and governmental departments. The university commission recom- 
mends that the institution and the Royal Veterinary College^ be 
brought into close promixity in a central site, and into cooperation 
under the educational and financial control of the university. This 
Avould be a confirmation of the recent general recognition of the 
importance of university training in veterinary science and re- 
search. 

2. The Physiological Lahoratory, established by the senate of the 
university in 1902, is one of the first fruits of the reconstituted uni- 
versity and of the stream of private gifts stimulated by the appear- 
ance of a concrete teaching and research institution in place of an 
abstract examining body. It has been said to be the " only example 
in London " of an institute devoted solely to research. The external 
side of the university has the declared policy of making it the first 
example of a series of special institutes. The university commis- 

* Founded in 1791 by a private union, recogniaed as the Royal Veterinary College in 
1875, and having " recognized teachers " after the reconstitution of the university. 



86 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

sion on the other hand argue that special research institutes should 
not be maintained out of university funds, although there may be 
room for independent research institutes in great cities like London. 
They recommend the development of one great department of physi- 
ology in a constituent college, which in this case would be University 
College, with its new building for the institutes of physiology and 
of pharmacology and of anatomy. The statement of the purposes 
for which the laboratory was established reads as follows : 

1. To afford to the lecturers of the University of Loudon and other duly 
accredited physiologists a place in which the results of current research can be 
presented by lectures and by demonstrations. 

2. To provide for advanced students of physiology opportunity for the prose- 
cution of research. 

The blending in the statement of the work of teaching with re- 
search would seem to differentiate the physiological laboratory from 
independent trusts purely for the advancement of knowledge like 
the Carnegie Institution of AVashington. The sound doctrine of the 
statement and the successful work of the laboratory have given a 
needed impulse to research in the University of London and may 
afford an example to other universities.^ 

3. The Francis Gallon Laljoratory for National Eugenics, founded 
in 1904, by gift, forms, with the Drapers' Company Biometric Labo- 
ratory, another benefaction, a department of applied statistics. The 
c^epartment, one of the first of the kind in the world, is a research 
department " for the study of those agencies under social control that 
may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, 
either physically or mentally." In addition to the work of its labo- 
ratories, the department collects statistical material bearing on its 
subjects and seeks to extend the knowledge of eugenics by profes- 
sional instruction, publications, public lectures, and eifperimental or 
observational work. By an appeal to the public and the generosity 
of a donor, a building with proper equipment is just being completed 
for this department at University College. This will fulfill a recom- 
mendation of the royal commission to keep departments primarily 
for research " in close touch with and proximity to one of the univer- 
sity teaching centers." This is the latest act enforcing the considered 
policy of not separating research institutes from teaching institutions 
or segregating a graduate faculty from other faculties. 

Jf. Goldsmiths'' College is another gift to the reconstituted uni- 
versity. The Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths founded it in 
1891 as the Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recreative In- 
stitute. The extensive buildings and grounds were presented to the 
university in 1904. The college is managed by a delegacy appointed 

»Cf. Ch. XV, "Advanced Study and Research, etc." 



TJNIVEESITY OF LONDON. 87 

annually by the senate and consisting of 18 members representing 
the senate, the Goldsmiths' company, and the county councils con- 
tributing to its support. There are five departments in the col- 
lege — teachers' training, science, engineering, building, and art. 
The first and last departments only carry on day work. The train- 
ing college is the largest in the country, but its work is not ordi- 
narily to extend beyond the standard of the pass degree. It was 
originally intended to give only a two years' course to those who 
had passed the matriculation or an equivalent entrance test. In 
view of the size and location of the day training college, the royal 
commission recommended that it should be continued for elemen- 
tary school teachers and also the school of art. The commission 
enunciated the principle that " a great university may quite prop- 
erly endeavor to show how elementary school teachers can best be 
prepared for their profession on the basis of a good general educa- 
tion by instruction which, though of university standard, does not 
involve the expenditure of time and the strain which a full course 
for a university degree entails." 

In this connection the London day training college comes into 
view. It was founded in 1902 under the auspices of the London 
County Council, and admitted, in 1909, as a school of the university 
in the faculty of arts in pedagogy. It is a fine example of a strictly 
professional or normal school only, doing work preparing for the 
teaching profession. Under the regulations of the board of educa- 
tion, it trains teachers for the elementary and secondary schools 
and also admits other advanced students and those preparing for 
the university higher diploma in pedagogy. The latter are ad- 
vanced students and those making a special study of some branch 
of educational method, history, or organization. Undergraduates 
of the University of London must have passed the matriculation 
examination or an equivalent and be " four year students." Grad- 
uates of a university or persons with equivalent qualifications may 
become " one-year students." Postgraduate students devoting their 
whole time to the work of the college during the year of training 
receive instruction in the theory, history, and practice of educa- 
tion in preparation for the teacher's diploma of the university. 
Well-equipped London secondary schools are used for practical in- 
struction, in addition to the two demonstration schools attached to 
the college. 

The course of instruction in the college is limited to the normal- 
school courses in the theory and practice of education and classes in 
nature study, clay modeling, drawing, music, physical trainmg, 
handicraft instruction, and needlework. Undergraduates taking a 
four years' course to satisfy the requirements of the board of educa- 



88 HIGHER EDUCATIOiT IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

tion and those of the university for bachelors' degrees attend at other 
colleges of the university for their degree courses.^ The royal com- 
mission recommend the elevation of the training college from a 
" school of the university " to become the " university department of 
education," with the possible representation of the county council in 
the government of the school, and the preservation of the privileges 
of the students within the tax-paying area. The principles recognized 
and the governmental arrangements proposed throw light on the 
diiRcult problem of coordinating colleges, normal schools, and uni- 
versities in the United States. 

A cursory survey of the university, beginning at its center, and of 
the institutions belonging to it, does not need for the present purposes 
to cover the numerous institutions in the outer circles of the univer- 
sity, grouped as " schools of the university " and " institutions having 
recognized teachers."^ Enough has been said to show the char- 
acteristic features of a modern urban university and the principal 
lessons it has to teach. It is more than a storehouse of knowledge 
accumulated in the past. It is a central power house connected with 
all the substations in which are generating the varied forces of our 
complex civilization. Responsive to every demand of society, it 
records and, in turn, endeavors to direct all great social movements. 
What an imprint of the nineteenth century, and after, is the Univer- 
sity of London ! The European revolution of the latter part of the 
eighteenth century, developing in France in a political revolution 
and in England resulting in a literary and religious revolution, in 
no small degree originates the university. It breathes the spirit 
that brought forth the reform bill of 1832, which was also thQ 
period of the birth of the university. It bears the mark in the time 
of the introduction of the newer studies and of its various organiza- 
tions of each successive important movement in thought and society. 
Our review has already pointed out a number of the coincidences of 
the development of the university's activities in connection with those 
of the times. 

The advance in the material sciences in the early part of the nine- 
teenth century, as well as of certain social and political philosophies, 
was immediately recognized in the curriculum. The age of steam and 
the railroad caused applied science to follow pure science. The 
exhibition of 1851 turned attention to fine arts and a wider appli- 
cation of the sciences. The increasing predominance of the industrial 
age, with the progress of invention and the competition of Germany, 
multiplied technical institutions. Renewed attention to the social, 
economic, and political sciences followed in the wake of the social 
ara succeeding the industrial age, toward the end of the nineteenth 

1 Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," pp. 211-212. 2 Cf. Table 6. 



UNIVEBSITY OF LONDON. 89 

century. The heralding of the advent of a national system of educa- 
tion by the parliamentary educational acts from 1870 on is reflected 
by the planting of training schools and the university's provision 
for teaching as a profession. The admission of women to degrees in 
1878 and university coeducation are among the first successes of the 
woman's movement. Greater London realized by the constitution of 
the London County Council in 1888 hastened the reconstitution of the 
university with " the main purpose of strengthening the ties between 
the university and the institutions engaged in higher education with- 
in the appointed radius of 30 miles." The national propaganda of 
imperialism, especially after the Boer War, led to the advance of the 
spirit of imperialism pari passu with the municipal spirit within the 
university. The holding of university examinations throughout the 
Empire had prepared the way for this. It has recently reached the 
point of the arrangement of intercollegiate lectures upon imperial 
subjects. The strength of these two developments has so impressed 
some of the parties now discussing university reforms that they deal 
with it as a twofold institution — municipal and imperial. 

The features attributed to a modern or civic university and aimed 
at by the University of London are summed up in common parlance 
by the phrase, the democratization of education. This includes much 
more than widening the range of subjects taught and attempting to 
put the modern disciplines upon an equality with the ancient ones. 
It calls for a university government upon a widely representative 
basis, including the classes and interests involved, and even the bene- 
ficiaries in the form of the student and graduate bodies, known as the 
*• students representative council and convocation." ^ The University 
of London has followed the principle to such lengths that the com- 
plaint is common concerning the cumbersomeness of legislation and 
the inefficiency in the executive with a senate of 56 members. The 
essence of freedom in the lehrfreiheit and lernfreiheit of the ancient 
universities is extended in practice in London as a modern university 
in the abolition of distinctions on account of race, of religion, of 
politics, of class, or of sex. Further extension of freedom is loudly 
called for to allow the teacher to make his own syllabus and set his 
own examinations and to give the student opportunity to be judged 
by his whole record instead of by one or two formal examinations. 
This would be to attain the freedom of an American university. 

A note of the civic university has been the intermingling of gen- 
eral, professional, and technical education. This has been carried to 
such an extent in London, in part due to the ramification of the uni- 
versity through institutions of all kinds, that it is asserted there is a 
tendency to a looseness of educational standard and a loss of uni- 
versity ideals. 

* a. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159. 



90 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The University of London announced at the beginning, what 
almost of necessity has become a sign of a civic university, the reduc- 
tion to a minimum of the cost of education to the student, approxi- 
mating a free education. Over against this, the laboratory methods 
of instruction insisted upon in these institutions greatly increased 
the cost of teaching. The natural outcome is that State aid for the 
scale of expenditure adopted is a necessity, and private benevolence 
must also be increased. State aid as a chief means of support has 
intensified in the civic university the sense of obligation belonging 
to all universities to serve the State.^ For this purpose, specialized 
courses and schools have been organized, investigations and research 
undertaken within the college walls, and extramural activities to 
serve the public promoted in various forms of university extension. 
The University of London brings out the characteristic features of a 
civic university on a magnificent scale. Since its reorganization in 
1900 it has become the greatest aggregation on earth of State, munici- 
pal, church, and private " not-conducted-f or-profit " foundations. 
An American university president referred to it as the disjecta 
membra of a giant, and in consequence weak and powerless. If he 
had studied deeper, he would have alluded to the disjecta Ttiemhra 
as gathered in superabundance and united by ligaments, and in some 
cases by wires, and only lacking, with some sloughing off, a unifying 
and vivifying nervous system to make a veritable giant in strength 
and power. 

To accomplish this was the aim of the royal commission ap- 
pointed in 1909 and reporting in 1913,^ after four years of gathering 
of evidence from scores of eminent authorities. In addition, the 
commission held 72 sittings for deliberation. The reconstitution of 
the university in 1900 was a half-way measure based upon com- 
promise. It gave a great impetus to the growth of the university, 
but soon the operation of the new constitution made its defects ap- 
parent. By 1908 the university senate petitioned for another royal 
commission, especially to consider the relations of the university and 
the Imperial College of Science and Technology. The amalgama- 
tion in the latter institution in 1907 as a result of another royal com- 
mission of important scientific colleges made it appear as a nucleus 
of a possible second university, and the apex of technological instruc- 
tion in the Kingdom. The threatened development of expensive 
duplications and the schism in the field of education precipitated the 
petition of the senate. The jealousies of the smaller institutions 
against the larger, aroused by the pending incorporation into the 
university of University and King's Colleges, accentuated the diffi- 
culties between the external and internal sides of the university. 

1 Cf. Ch. XII, " State Aid and Visitation." 

2 Royal commission on university education in London, Lord Haldane, chairman, code 
6719. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 91 

In short, the progress of the university in the first decade of the 
twentieth century made London and the Empire conscious of the 
university. It was ready for a new stage of development, in which 
it should avail itself of the many valuable experiments it had made. 

The review of these experiments and an extensive study of present- 
day university problems, inspired by the high purpose of recommend- 
ing principles and plans for inaugurating the fourth and possibly 
permanent stage of the university, in the final report of the commis- 
sioners deserve to be summarized and commented upon. Under 
the heading, " The Essentials of University Education," the re- 
port lays down five principles susceptible of universal applica- 
tion. The first is " that students should work in constant association 
with their fellow students, of their own and other faculties, 
in close contact with their teachers; and that they should pur- 
sue their work when young and able to devote their whole time to 
it." At the beginning this revives the ideal of the ancient universi- 
ties, in danger of being lost in the modern, of a community of youth- 
ful students and teachers wholly devoted to learning, and favors if 
possible a residential and tutorial system. The second essential is 
that " in the university, knowledge is pursued not only for the sake 
of information, but always with reference to the attainment of truth." 

This differentiates university worli in its nature and aim from that of a 
secondary school in wliicli definite tasks are prescribed, and pupils with plastic 
minds are mentally and morally trained by the orderly exercise of all their 
activities ; also from that of the technical or professional schools in vs^hich 
theoretical teaching is largely directed by the application of ascertained facts 
to practical purposes. 

This sets up as a standard of admission to a university college 
the completing of a secondary school course and recognizes the touch 
of liberal education in a university. Thirdly, it is asserted that 
" there should be close association of undergraudate and postgraduate 
work." It will surprise many Americans that this point is elevated 
into an essential, but it represents almost a universal Old World 
practice.^ "A superuniversity " is an American development re- 
pugnant to European notions. Fourthly, " special research insti- 
tutes should not form part of the university organization." It is 
contended that the recent continental esfablishment of independent 
research institutes is in the experimental stage, and is intended to 
undertake work in branches of knowledge outside the ordinary scope 
of a university, and to pursue longer and more elaborate investiga- 
tions than the time of university students and teachers would per- 
mit. The Carnegie Institution, of Washington, is mentioned as an 
independent trust for the advancement of knowledge having no 

^Cf. Ch. XV, "Advanced Study and Research without Graduate Schools," pp. 218-219. 



92 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

relation to the university problem. Fifthly, " the establishment of a 
university press under full university control is an essential function 
of the university." Sixthly, " technological instruction should be 
included among the functions of a university, but it should not be of 
a narrow utilitarian kind. From the practical point of view of in- 
dustrial progress the university treatment of technology as based 
upon a thorough grounding in pure science is of the highest value and 
importance." 

In the preceding sentence the commission run a line of demarca- 
tion between university technological instruction and that for strictly 
trade purposes carried on in polytechnics and trade schools. The 
principle is given which might well be applied in the coordination 
of professional or higher engineering as taught in the university, 
and mechanic arts as taught in the college of agriculture and me- 
chanic arts.^ 

Seventhly, " a degree should signify that a university education 
has been received." This involves some form of tests or examina- 
tions.^ While the report regards the granting of degrees as one of 
the chief characteristics of a university, it safeguards against the 
view that the giving and taking of degrees is the real end of the uni- 
versity's existence. A pronouncement revolutionary and counter to 
English practice is made against external examinations and the 
award of degrees upon examination alone.^ 

The report adds other things which, though not essential to the 
nature of a university, are desirable in a city university. For exam- 
ple, the urban university " should offer as good education to its even- 
ing as to its day students." It should provide locally for university 
extension. In particular, it should maintain a special center for 
work done in conjunction with the Workers' Education Association.' 

The report enumerates seven conditions necessary for the realiza- 
tion of the foregoing aims. 

1. The basis of university work must be a preparatory "general 
education in a wide range of study, giving the power of accurate 
expression and orderly thought, together with moral training." Sev- 
eral inferences follow, extremely suggestive for colleges in the United 
States. Secondary school work should be completed before entering 
college; though, owing to the increased number of departments of 
study, the college may teach the elements of some subsidiary subjects. 
The secondary school is the primary place for a general education. 
Specialization in schools is desirable after the age of 16. It would 
then be well for pupils to remain in school for two additional years, 
intending university students making some definite preparation for 

» Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education, p. 205, passim. 

» Cf. Ch. XVI, " Examinations," p. 22.3. 

sCf. Cb. XIX, "University Extension Teaching," p. 252. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON". 93 

the faculty they propose to enter. Herein certainly room is made 
for the American junior college. The opinion is advanced, still 
startling to many in the United States, that any sound general educa- 
tion should be sufficient to secure admission to college and that a 
school-leaving certificate as in Scotland (and we may add in the 
Western States) in lieu of an entrance examination should be ac- 
cepted. 

2. "Homogeneity of university classes" is requisite. Students 
must not be combined in the same classes unless they are qualified 
to work together by having met equivalent standards for admission 
as candidates for degrees. 

3. "A university quarter " is advocated in the interests of economy 
and eificiency and to make visible to the public a great seat of learn- 
ing. The first essential of corporate life in a university and the felt 
disadvantages of the present wide dispersal of university institu- 
tions in London call for a policy of centralization. 

4. The establishment of residential hostels and the promotion of 
university societies and their accommodation in central university 
buildings are sequels to the fundamental fraternal idea of a uni- 
versity.^ 

5. The creation of a proper university professoriate requires that 
the university appoint, pay, pension, and dismiss its teachers.^ 
This is proved by the inadequate results of the experiment of the 
University of London in dividing the responsibility for the selec- 
tion of teachers with other bodies. 

6. " The teachers should, under certain safeguards, have control of 
the education and examinations of their students." It is hard for 
an American professor to appreciate the force of this recommenda- 
tion, since he makes the syllabus of his own courses and sets his own 
examinations. In London the teacher is bound by a hard and fast 
syllabus largely made by others and submits his students to external 
examiners. 

7. "The university must have complete financial control of all 
the institutions within it. This control should be vested in a small 
council or senate, acting as the supreme executive body of the 
university." This condition is a great keynote of the report, scarcely 
second to the keynote struck in the first essential of any university, 
namely, that of a corporate life of students and teachers. While 
the condition is a sound one for any university, it is a necessity for 
the coordination of institutions in London, and may well be applied 
in the coordination of institutions in different localities in American 
States.' 

1 Cf. Ch. XVIII, " student Life," pp. 244-245. 
« Cf. Ch. XI, " Provisions for the Fticulty." 
» Cf. Ch. XIII, " Coordination of Institutions." 



94 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The essentials of a university and the conditions necessary for the 
realization of them require fundamental changes in the constitution 
of the university.^ The report proposes a less cumbersome and more 
centralized and at the same time widely representative government 
than the present one. It would differentiate legislative and executive 
functions, educational and financial administration, and coordinate 
them by advisory bodies. The report would substitute for the existing 
senate ^ of 56 members representing various interests two bodies, the 
court, a widely representative body consisting of about 200 members, 
which would include a minority representation of the teachers and 
of the graduates, and a majority of distinguished laymen appointed 
by outside governmental and professional bodies concerned. This 
would be the supreme governing body of the university, and it alone 
would have legislative functions. The small senate of 15 members, 
including the chancellor, the vice chancellor, the chairman of convo- 
cation, and 2 representatives of the teachers, would be the execu- 
tive body, with full financial power. It would have full powers as 
to educational policies, except for the reservation to the faculties of 
statutory control over courses of study, examinations, and qualifica- 
tions for degrees, etc. It would have the power of appointment of 
university officers and teachers, and of administrative business gen- 
erally. It is contemplated that a majority of the senate will be promi- 
nent laymen and business experts, 5 appointed by the Crown, 2 by 
the court, 2 by the London County Council, and 1 by the corporation 
of the city of London for terms of years. 

The report proposes that but one of the three existing standing 
committees should survive, namely, the academic council ; the council 
for external students and the university extension board being 
dropped in the interests of unification. The new academic council 
would consist of the vice chancellor as chairman, the deans of the 
faculties, 8 members of the faculties elected by the faculties in com- 
mon session, and 1 teacher appointed by the senate to represent each 
group of studies in respect of which schools of the university have 
been recognized, but for which no faculty has been constituted. The 
academic council would be a small body in the first instance of 16 
members, including at least 1 member of each of the faculties, but 
not constituted on the basis of proportional representation. The func- 
tions of the council would be mainly advisory, to insure that the 
senate should have before it the opinion of the professoriate upon 
educational questions affecting the university as a whole. Executive 
functions as regards educational matters might be delegated to the 
council by the senate. The report mentions a — 

committee for technology, an executive committee of the senate intrusted with 
the administration of all matters connected with the faculty of technology, ex- 

* Of. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," pp. 159-169. 
«Cf. p. 70. 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 95 

cepting finance and the appointment of professors and readers, in respect of 
wliich its powers would be advisory. 

It is easy to infer that this committee is proposed as a matter of 
expediency for the time being, as it is not logically, like the first three 
bodies, a consistent part of the proposed governmental scheme. 
Strong objection has been made to this item of the report by friends 
of the report. 

The convocation would be continued substantially as it exists. It 
would elect the chancellor for life and the chairman of convocation 
(who would be members both of the court and the senate), as well 
as 20 members of the court. The proposed discontinuance of the 
council for external students leaves the convocation without an or- 
ganized representation of the external side of the university among 
the governing bodies. This is believed to be the cause of a large part 
of the agitation against the report. The majority of the convocation 
having been external students looks with suspicion upon the shifting 
of the center of gravity of the university from the external to the 
internal side. 

The report would continue the students' representative council, 
giving it power to appoint two representatives on the court, in addi- 
tion to the right of access to the university authorities by petition. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNIVERSITY. 

Strictly speaking, the convocation, the students' representative 
council, and the faculties do not belong to the government of the uni- 
versity, but represent its threefold constituency, graduates, students, 
and teachers, of which from the nature of the case the teachers are 
the chief body. Accordingly a striking part of the report is the 
emphasis laid upon the faculties as the basis of university organiza- 
tion. The report reads: 

Tlie faculty should consist either wholly or in the main of the university 
professors (including honorary and associate professors) of the subjects com- 
prised within the faculty; of the university readers (including honorary and 
associate readers) in subjects for which the university has not provided pro- 
fessorships ; and of such other teachers and officers appointed by the university 
as the faculty may co-opt. The vice chancellor should be a member ex officio 
of every faculty. A faculty is not confined to a single institution, but embraces 
properly qualified teachers of subjects who have been appointed by the 
university. 

The report proposes the organization of departments as the units 
in the faculty. It says: 

In the same way as the faculty, which consists of the principal teachers of 
the group of subjects comprised within it, is thought of as extending beyond the 
lines of individual constituent colleges, so the several subjects within the fac- 
ulty should be organized into departments, which may, if necessary, extend 



96 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

beyond an individual college. Any two colleges between which a department is 
divided should be in such proximity as to allow of effective supervision by a 
single head. 

One can not fail to note the skill with which the commission makes 
the faculties a fundamental factor toward the unification of the uni- 
versity. 

Under the powers of faculties the report treats " professorial ex- 
timinations," a reform previously referred to. 

The head of each department, and under his direction the other teachers in 
n4s department, will be the examiners in the department, but in the public ex- 
aminations one or two assessors appointed by the faculty will be conjoined with 
him. 

To safeguard the standard of a degree amidst the varying exami- 
nations allowed, the report, in addition to the provisions for stand- 
ards of admission and instruction, provides that — 
the faculties shall be assured by reports from boards of studies that the range 
of study in a subject as treated by different teachers shall broadly be the same, 
and from its assessors that the standard of the examinations and other tests 
shall broadly be the same. 

Turning from the instructional to the institutional organization 
of the university, the report recommends the establishment of con- 
stituent colleges and university departments. 

The constituent colleges will be educational institutions which are either 
establishetl by the university or which are strong enough in one or more facul- 
ties to comply with the conditions for incorporation, and which transfer to the 
university the financial and educational control of their work in one or more of 
those faculties. 

No institution shall be considered strong enough to become a constituent 
college in any faculty unless it is able to provide a full course for the first and 
higher degrees awarded in that faculty. Each constituent college will be man- 
aged by a delegacy similar to those already appointed for University and King's 
Colleges. The university departments will be departments dealing with a single 
subject of study, or with a group of studies of less range than a faculty, whether 
established by the university or placed under its financial and educational con- 
trol. 

Each university department will be managed by a delegacy similar to those 
already appointed for University and King's Colleges. Constituent colleges and 
university departments will have a departmental organization according to sub- 
jects of study. 

The summary of the report up to this point will enable one to 
catch the scheme of the commission. The nucleus of the university 
is the coordination of faculties and of " constituent colleges " and 
of " university departments " through a central administration and 
financial control, reenforced by a central site for buildings to accom- 
modate the administration, and certain institutions alike in kind. 
Outside the site of the " university quarter " to be built, it would be 
expected to strengthen university centers in connection with existing 



UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 97 

institutions for specific purposes and to concentrate the area of the 
university for " constituent colleges " and " university departments " 
within the administrative county of London. 

Bloomsbury, the seat of University College and of the British 
Museum, is recommended by the commission as the most suitable 
place in which " to create a university quarter, wdiich would prob- 
ably do more than anything else to convince the London public that 
the university was a reality/' The Imperial College of Science, 
surrounded by the scientific collections of the Government at South 
Kensington, would remain undisturbed, according to the report. 
This recommendation has proved no exception to the rule that dis- 
cussions are apt to rage about sites, local interests being involved. 
If an impartial jury of scholars from abroad w^ere impaneled to de- 
cide the case, it is altogether likely that they would sustain the 
report in this matter. 

The report in theory, having established a unified central teach- 
ing university, faces the problem how best to link up with the uni- 
A'ersity, without lowering its standard, the remaining provision for 
higher education in London and the home counties. The answer is 
to continue the present regulations and make them more strict for 
recognizing schools of the university. These would be reckoned as 
independent university centers which w^ould in time become con- 
stituent colleges if within the administrative county of London, or 
parts of a new university for southeast England if outside that area. 

When institutions are not devoted exclusively or almost exclusively 
to university work, groups of departments in university work may 
be recognized as schools. This recognition of schools in " mixed " 
institutions should be limited to those which may ultimately become 
independent university centers. To insure the application of the 
principles of the report the following new conditions are to be 
imposed upon the schools of the university: The university should 
be represented on the governing board of each school. The principal 
teachers should form an advisory board on academic matters. The 
university should have some voice in the appointment of teachers, 
and the title of " professor " or " reader," except in theological 
schools, is to be conferred only by the university. 

The additional conditions for the recognition of schools in 
"mixed" institutions give the university a power to require the 
coordination of the work of the center with the w^ork elsewhere, to 
satisfy itself that the staffing and laboratories are adequate, and that 
there is a group of qualified teachers fitted to give instruction covering 
all the subjects of a degree course in some one faculty. These conditions 
lead to the conclusion that the present system of recognizing teachers 
in institutions otherwise unconnected with the university should 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 7 



98 • HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

cease, and that as a rule polytechnics should not attempt to become 
schools of the university. These logical conclusions have been natur- 
ally a source of opposition to the report. The proposed abandon- 
ment of the interesting experiment of the university recognition of 
individual teachers, an experiment which has been received with 
favor in some quarters in the United States, should be especially 
noted. The practice is an outcome of extreme individualism, as over 
against the cooperative and institutional ideas of the present. 

Consistent with the doctrine of exalting the professoriate within 
the university, the report urges that the principal teachers in the 
"'■ schools " should be grouped with reference to the faculties to which 
their subjects of study belong, but should not unless appointed by the 
university be members of the university faculties. These groups of 
teachers should constitute boards of studies in their respective facul- 
ties. These boards, with the assistance of committees they might ap- 
point under the approval of the senate, would prepare the curricula 
and syllabuses of the courses for degrees. The continuance is urged 
of the present practice of the inclusion on the committees of " other 
persons " who are not teachers in the " schools." 

It is noteworthy that the commission approves of the experiment 
of connecting in the faculty councils of the university, professors 
with practitioners, the theoretical expert in the university with the 
prominent expert in the professions, sciences, and arts at work in 
the outside world. 

The commission approached the subject of external degrees as one 
^' which has aroused in the past the most acute and bitter contro- 
versy." They look forward to the time when the demand for them 
will decrease or disappear with the multiplication and accessi- 
bility of universities, and with the "better understanding of the 
value of a university training." They conclude since the University 
of London was their originator that external degrees must be re- 
tained for the present. External students should be known as " un- 
attached." External candidates, however, are to be excluded from 
examinations in medicine and engineering, as these subjects require 
in practice something more than a mere test of knowledge afforded 
b}^ an examination. 

The pronouncement of the commission on external degrees after 
the many years of experience in the University of London should 
stay the tendency in the United States on the part of some institu- 
tions to grant degrees for what they call imiversity extension work. 
They may acknowledge the value of proper correspondence schools 
and their certificates for certain persons and purposes, but they 
should teach the public the sharp distinction between this external 
work and certificates and the college training and degrees. 



UNIVEESITY OF LONDON. 99 

Pursuing their policy of concentration, the commission would end 
the practice of holding examinations for degrees of the university 
in the colonies. . This practice discourages the establishment of 
teaching universities in those countries and imposes curricula 
planned for the needs of students at home, instead of those for the 
needs of candidates in the colonies. The university having been a 
model on which universities had been founded in India, in South 
Africa, and in New Zealand, in reforming itself wishes to set an 
example for them to substitute teaching for examining universities. 
It is intended that the university shall fulfill imperial functions of 
more real value than handing out syllabuses, examination papers, 
and degrees in distant countries. It is hoped that the university will 
be a center to which students from the whole Empire will come in 
larger numbers. The university at the capital of the Empire, in 
close touch with the colonial office and the board of education, could 
help colonial governments with its advice and by the issuance of 
certificates which might be accepted in lieu of the tests required of 
English students. 

No space can be given here to the application of the principles of 
the report elaborated by the commission in the proposed treatment 
and reorganization of the faculties. The report labors patiently and 
judiciously to set up models which may be generally and gradually 
adopted, giving time for the many vested interests to adjust them- 
selves to the changes. The main lesson of this section of the report 
teaches legislators in the United States, who are coordinating and 
reorganizing educational institutions, to act upon the advice of 
educators and to effect reforms by evolution instead of by revolution. 
Incidentally the American systems and standards of university, legal, 
and medical education recently established are confirmed. 

The report estimates that an additional income of not less than 
$495,000 a year will be needed to inaugurate the reforms proposed, 
and evidently expects the Government to provide that sum. The 
commissioners believe that the unlimited possibilities of the re- 
formed university will so appeal to the liberality of the private 
benefactor that he will, in the future even more than in the past, 
supplement the public contributions from imperial and local funds 
by the gift of buildings and endowments. English experience has 
shown that the way to secure the coordination of independent in- 
stitutions is to give them Government grants.^ The commission 
seek, beyond the coordination of the institutions, their stimulation 
by enlarged support to pay higher salaries and to raise their stand- 
ards and ideals. While giving precedence to these aims they do 
not forget the need for the reduction of the fees of the students and 

» Cf. Ch. XII, " state Aid and Visitation." 



100 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

of the cost of duplication in the institutions. The Americans legis- 
lating for the coordination of their State institutions might well 
catch the spirit and wisdom of the royal commissioners and put 
the motive of the improvement and efficiency of their institutions 
above that of economy. 

In the autumn of 1913 the Government appointed a departmental 
committee to prepare a bill for an act of Parliament based upon the 
recommendations of the commissioners. During 1914 the committee 
invited and received representations from the institutions and parties 
concerned, and before the outbreak of the war it was hoped that a 
bill might be passed before the expiration of the present Parlia- 
ment. Now a long delay is inevitable. 

This chapter on the University of London and the report of the 
royal commission make patent three general suggestions: 

1. While no one could desire to repeat anywhere the position of 
things in London, a great urban university and institutions near it 
should feel an obligation by conferences, mutual recognition, and 
" intercollegiate lectures " to link up and promote higher educa- 
tion within an area of a given radius. President Lowell pointed 
out, at the time of his inauguration, what economy, efficiency, and 
consciousness of power could be obtained by the association or affili- 
ation under the aegis of Harvard of the institutions of higher learn- 
ing within rapid-transit distance of Boston. Yale might propose 
something similar for Connecticut. Other prominent universities 
having naturally extended areas by means of interurbans and rail- 
ways could effect the same thing. 

2. Following the example of London, as practically a State uni- 
versity, grouping about it independently endowed, and even church 
institutions, as well as sister State institutions. State universities 
by similar means ought to find a way to be centers for the coordi- 
nation of State institutions and of cooperation with independent 
colleges. 

3. London, in its aspects as an imperial university, may throw 
light upon the question of a LTniversity of the United States, pre- 
cipitated by George Washington and his bequest for the purpose. 
Though London was the latest among the great capitals to have a 
university, it has made it plain that a capital is naturally more 
than a political center. Governmental activities necessitate, espe- 
cially in modern times, the gathering there of experts in all the 
arts, sciences, and professions, and the equipment they need in 
libraries, laboratories, and collections. Officials and citizens con- 
stantly going to and fro from the capital to the utmost bounds of 
a country find in the capital a unifying influence and spread it 
broadcast. The political forces need the touch at the capital of 



tJNTVERSlTY OF LOKDOK. lOl 

an organized university that intellectual and spiritual elements may 
be brought to bear upon them and be radiated with them through- 
out the life of the Nation. The report of the commissioners inti- 
mates that the imperial university is in London not only because of 
the advantages to a university of the material there but because 
the Government needs at its own doors a university to serve it and 
to propagate the national life throughout the Empire. Every true 
university, whether it be with or without State aid, is truly national 
and international. The British Government now renders aid to 
every university and almost every university college in Great Britain 
and Ireland, and they are in a high sense national, but they are 
not governmental and imperial like London. 

A university at the capital of the Government, by the Govern- 
ment, for the Government, in virtue of its being a university, is 
more than a Government department. It must have the virtues and 
freedom of the sisterhood of universities. It has in addition a govern 
mental mission which in no wise derogates from other universities. 
From its situation it supplements them, and in the long run must 
bring a reaction in their favor. The University of London is not a 
competitor in its imperial aspects of the other British universities, 
but a variation of type to suit the capital in which it is. Not only 
London but the other world's capitals teach that there should be a 
Federal university at Washington. London also teaches how a 
government by progressive appropriations may gradually grow a uni- 
versity out of heterogeneous institutions at hand.^ 

1 The following authorities have been used in this chapter : Calendars, 1913-14 ; annual 
reports of the heads of the institutions; board of education reports (1912-13) from 
universities and university colleges in receipt of grant from the board (code 7615) ; royal 
commission on university education in London, final report, 1913 (code 6717), appendix 
(code 6718) ; The Times Edu. Supplement, Jan. 5, 1915 ; articles and communications in 
public press and reviews, 1913-14, e. g., The Lancet weekly articles from Apr. 26, 1913 ; 
British Medical Journal, May 17, 1913, and personal interviews. 



Chapter IV. 

THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES.* 

Manchester (Victoria), Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, 

Bristol. 



The new or provincial iiniA'ersities, says a writer — ■ 

present a composite picture in which progress and poverty are the prevailing 
hues -1= * * Not since the monastic revival of the tvvelftli century or the scholas- 
tic revolution of the sixteenth has England known an educational movement 
so rich in romance, in courage, in devotion, and in promise. The dreamer has 
dreamed, the founder has given land and gold, the public have subscribed, civic 
pride has been stirred, and the cry and need for knowledge have justified them 
all * * * They have heretofore devoted their efforts to the tasks of prov- 
ing themselves necessary to the community, and worthy of public and private 
support.2 

This they have clearly succeeded in doing in the first decade and 
a half of the twentieth century. They might well be named twen- 
tieth century universities, in which century they have all taken their 
present form. A variety of baptismal names has been proposed 
which may in part reveal their character. Observers at a distance 
and those within the centers yielding to or flattering local pride 
have described them as municipal universities. But the leaders in 
them know the incongruity in the name. From its nature a univer- 
sity transcends the limitations of a locality in which it may have a 
local habitation and name. They are ready to protest against the 
municipalization of the institutions. The city at most is only a 
part owner and contributor and may justly have its representation 
in the government of the university. True to university traditions, 
these institutions are organized so as not to be subject to official 
municipal control. Each one has representatives in its government 
of an extended area of country of which the city is only the center. 
For example, the University of Birmingham looks upon itself as 
the university of the Midlands. 

While, as in the case of most of the American universities, the ma- 
jority of the students live within a radius of 30 miles from the seat of 

»See Tables 7 and 8, pp. 266-267. » Edinburgh Rev., Jan., 1911, pp. 57, 58. 
102 



THE NEW OE PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 103 

the university, there is a considerable representation from other parts 
of the United Kingdom and from abroad. The activities of these 
universities, their attendance, and the contributions to their support 
cover something like the ground of a province of which the city is 
only a center; and if a name is to be taken from their location, would 
justify the term "provincial" rather than "municipal." Indeed in 
the reports of the board of education they are alluded to as the 
provincial universities, a term of convenience in classifying them 
Avith the London and Welsh colleges. This is not intended as an 
official designation of these universities, but is descriptive in accord- 
ance with the usage by which anything in England outside London 
is said to be in the provinces. Provincial is inapplicable as a title 
for these universities, because, in fact, there are no provinces by 
which they are circumscribed, nor are they characterized by provin- 
cialism. They might more fitly be denominated " national," in view 
of their large grants from Government, their national services, and 
the spirit of the new nationalism which fills them. But " national " 
is not a term which may be appropriated by any one type of 
university. 

The use of the phrase " modern " universities, as contradistinguished 
from " ancient," has met with considerable favor, but also with ob- 
jections from both sides. The term " modern " may be used as a two- 
edged sword cutting off the " ancient " university from the modern 
side, and the " modern " university from the ancient side, which 
would be fatal to both. The defenders of the " ancient " universities 
resent the insinuation that they are not also modern, and point to 
the new movements they have inaugurated and the new subjects 
taught since they ceased to divide the " realm of knowledge into two 
provinces which they used to call classics and mathematics." On 
the other hand, one of the " modern " university leaders has said : 

The modern university is not limited to the study of things modern. On the 
contrary, one of the most characteristic notes of the modern spirit is tliat it 
;ioes back to the origins of things, and studies them in the light of their history.' 

The title " civic " university, attributed to Lord Haldane, has been 
gaining ground. It is a broader title than " municipal," and escapes 
the thought conveyed in the latter of being limited to functioning 
for a city and subject to direct ownership and control by a city. 
" Civic " acknowledges a city relationship, but may be interpreted 
as reaching beyond the body politic to the citizens composing it and 
the State. The " civic " universities are peculiarly the people's insti- 
tutions and reflect in part the spirit of some of their precursors in the 
nineteenth century, the so-called people's colleges.- In their origin 
and support by the gifts of private citizens combined with city and 

1 Sonuensehein, Piof. E. A., Birmingham Daily Post, May 8, 1899. «Cf. p. 125. 



104 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

State aid, and in prominent purposes, they are " civic." The scope 
of the word may be gathered from what Lord Hadlane wrote : 

What we most lack in this country is tlie penetration of the mass of our 
people by the spirit of the higher education. Alike in our peace and in our war 
organizations there is wanting the survey based on science. * * * We 
handicap ourselves by want of the higher training. * * * The standard of 
knowledge is rising, and I think that with it the moral standard is rising. 

* * * For the training of the necessary leaders the higher education is 
essential, and the universities are its only reliable source. One of the satis- 
factory features of our times is the large increase in the number of our uni- 
versities within the last ten years and the generous endowment of them from 
private sources. That the State ought to do more than it does in the way of 
endowment I agree with the writer of this book. But I am not sure that I 
wish to see the burden transferred to the State in a wholesale fashion, some- 
times suggested.* 

" Civic " is a name growing in popularity for this group of univer- 
sities and fits certain aspects of their origin, maintenance, and pur- 
poses, but historically another name has precedence which is moi'e 
characteristic and gives no ground for criticism. The "new" uni- 
versities was the title proclaimed to meet the history, the facts of 
the case, and the w^ants of the new times. In 1887 Prof. Seeley 
prophesied of the name and thing :- 

The new university which exists for study and research aims especially at 
comprehensiveness and universality. It neglects no subject and tries to do 
justice to all. * * * Modern civilization needs a vast quantity of science ; 
the demand for trustworthy knowledge, scientific, sanitary, technical, eco- 
nomical, political, historical, moral, and religious, rises with urgency from 
these great towns. * * * It is a demand for knowledge, not for training. 
It is not made in the interest of the young. It calls for institutions by which 
the whole science of the age may be brought within the reach of all, young 
and old alike ; in short, it calls not for new schools or new colleges, in the 
Oxford and Cambridge sense, but in the strictest sense of the word for new 
universities. 

I have watched the growth of this demand and the various attempts which 
have been made to satisfy it from the time Maurice set up his Working Men's 
College on. The sense that true and pure knowledge is not nearly enough 
diffused among us has taken many forms. Various, too, have been the remedies 
proposed : Colleges of science, university colleges, working men's colleges. 
Queen's colleges, Newnham and Girton, university extension, teaching of politics, 
impartial discussion of politics, university settlements, and Toynbee Hall. 

* * * We have not formed the habit of expecting from universities what 
it might be supposed they were capable of giving, abundant knowledge on all 
the most important subjects. * * * There has always been some interested 
company regulating the supply. On the Continent it has been the state, here 
in old times it was the church, and more recently it has been the caprice of 
founders putting a money value upon the subjects they liked best. In this way 
the teaching of the universities has been regulated. * * * "We begin to 

^ Haldane, R. B., K. C, M. P., Introduetiou to " Education and National Progress," 
by Sh- Norman Lockyer. Macmlllan & Co., London, 1906, pp. v, vi. 

- Seeley, Prof. J. R., "A Midland University ; an address delivered in the Town Hall, 
Birmingham, on the 10th Oct., 1S87." Davies Bros., Livery Street, Birmingham, 
pp. 13-15. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 105 

touch a thing for which we have as jet no name, but which is hirger and 
srander than the woi-ld has yet seen, a sort of universal university. We are 
forming a great teaching order which shall have its fixed lecture rooms in 
every great town and shall send out missions to smaller towns.' This order 
shall be in touch with the people and shall furnish the knowledge which is 
wanted and as it is wanted. But it shall also be in touch with science, shall 
never lose the pure reverence for truth, the conscientious thoroughness and 
accuracy which has been the boast of the older universities, and shall never 
corrupt truth to gratify the likings or the party rancors of its vast popular 
audience. 

Prof. Seeley even ventured to prophesy in detail, "England, which 
till lateh^ has had but two universities in the proper sense of the 
word, will have a dozen and perhaps the United Kingdom will have 
a score.*' Similar dreams to those of Prof. Seeley had been told. 
In 1879 Canon Lightfoot, in an address delivered before the council 
of education in Liverpool, drew a vivid picture of such a university, 
and the Rev, Charles Beard, with others, had drawn up a scheme for 
the establishment of a proposed college in that city. In 1880, at 
the opening of Mason's Scientific College in Birmingham, Huxley 
referred to those who would have looked upon such a college as a 
' piece of chimercial absurdity." Indeed, the realization of the 
dream had already begun in Manchester, in Owens College and 
Victoria University, and the colleges in Leeds, Sheffield, Newcastle, 
Bristol, and Nottingham. 

The universities that have grown in the twentieth century out of 
the Victorian era were not manufactured at a single stroke, but, 
after the British fashion, were a growth from some form of pre- 
existent local school or college and the amalgamation of several 
under some external influence. With the exception of Leeds and 
Sheffield, there was the inspiration of a medieval endowed classical 
school shedding abroad in the city the spirit of higher education. 
Likewise the spirit of professional education had been nourished 
by local medical colleges. Technical schools and science colleges w^ere 
naturally taproots of the universities located in large cities which 
liad grown rapidly through the spread of industry and commerce. 
The municipalities induced by the endowments given by citizens 
came to the support of technical institutions devoted to the training, 
of skill in local industries. This led to the rapid development of a 
local complete educational system crowned by its university. The 
base of the system is the public elementary schools succeeding the 
act of 1870. Upon this base rest the secondary schools reared by 
later acts and bearing up the university. The university fits itself 
closely into the system b}^ evening schools of classes, or by arrange- 

» Cf. Ch. XIX, " University Extension," p. 249. 



106 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

ments for part-time students in industrial, commercial, or domestic 
subjects, and oftentimes with a correlation as far as possible of 
work with the evening continuation classes. The system is further 
cemented together by city and county council scholarships and ex- 
hibitions, which, in connection with the low fees of the university, 
enable the laboring and artisan, as well as the "black-coated" and 
commercial, classes to secure a higher education. It is not strange 
that the new universities, teacliing so many industrial subjects, Avith 
so many students from the industrial classes, and located in indus- 
trial centers, were at first subject to misconceptions and were called 
industrial universities. They were ridiculed as no longer " schools 
of high studies," but "schools of high chimneys." Prof. Sonnen- 
schein replied : 

But it may be fairly contended tliat a university situated in the heart of a 
manufacturing district sliould malie a special feature of those studies which 
stand in an intimate relation to technical pursuits. In this sense the new 
(Uiiversity will be in Mr. Chamberlain's phrase "redolent of the soil."^ 

Prof. Sonnenschein pleaded for a central position of the faculty 
of arts in these universities. First, he took up the standard argument 
in a way to appeal to the public. He wrote : 

There was a young man of these parts, 

Who said, " What the dickens is Arts? " 

Your Science I know, and your Medicine ditto; 

But whafs all this fuss about Arts? 
The fuss is due to the fact that it is necessary to utter a protest against the 
ittitude * * * of treating the faculty of arts as a mere handmaid of the 
faculty of science, as though its raison d'etre were to provide students of 
science with a little light recreation and enable them to read a scientific disser- 
tation in German or French. Littene humaniores, humanizing letters, to use 
the dear old Oxford term in its broadest sense, can never become antiquated 
so long as man is man. No one pleads for making Greek and Latin the staple 
of instruction in a modern university ; but a faculty of letters has an inde- 
feasible claim to existence in its own right." 

The professor in passing reprobated a statement, evidently rising 
from the organization of English society in classes and the tradi- 
tions of the old universities, that Greek and Latin would be out of 
place in the new university, those studies being fitted for the " sons 
of the landed gentry." From the familiar argument of the im- 
portance of a faculty of arts in the new university to create an 
atmosphere of liberal education, the professor advanced the fresher 
argument of the necessity in such an institution of the faculty of 
arts on its " professional side." This faculty is mainly concerned 
with the training of teachers and with preparing men for those call- 
ings in which literary skill plays the chief part. The faculty of arts 

^ Sonnenschein, Prof. E. A., Birniingham Daily Post, May 1, 1899. 

* Soinenschein, Prof. E. A., " The Proposed University of Birmingham," read before 
the university graduate's club in Birmingham, Nov. 15, 1898. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. lOY 

is to be more broadly based for technical education widened to in- 
clude all those special studies which prepare men for earning their 
bread in a profession. Technical education would thus rise to be 
professional education in professional schools or colleges, above the 
level of secondary school work, in connection with the faculty of 
liberal arts and the other faculties of the new university. 

The occasional opponent in the United States of maintaining a 
college of liberal arts at the heart of a large university with many 
professional colleges would do well to note that the soundness of 
the above arguments is confirmed by the fact that all the new uni- 
versities have established faculties of arts which have been constantly 
increasing in strength and influence. The friends, too, of Greek and 
Latin and of other classic literatures, even including Hebrew, though 
these subjects are not compulsory, may take heart that these studies 
hold their own in the new universities. These studies do not have the 
preeminence, of course, that they had in the old universities, but they 
are not belittled, and their departments are making contributions 
to knowledge. 

Several influences outside those of the locality entered into the 
genesis of the new universities. Of course, the agitations we have 
seen operating to bring about reforms in the older universities were 
not without effect upon the newer. The university extension move- 
ment proceeding from Cambridge and Oxford stimulated the local 
beginnings to flower into the new universities, not without some 
fragrance of the old.^ The life of the older universities still breathes 
in the newer, for it is roughly estimated that not less than 75 per 
cent of the heads of departments in the newer universities are gradu- 
ates of Oxford, Cambridge, and the Scotch universities. 

A substantial impetus to the development of these universities came 
from acts of Parliament at first incorporating older schools as 
university colleges and increasing treasury grants in aid for univer- 
sities." The Government grants magnified the duty of the univer- 
sities in the direct service of the State. Some of the grants were for 
specific purposes leading to investigations. These fostered the spirit 
of research which leaders of thought had been urging as a central 
object of universities, and which had been stimulated by the example 
of German and American universities. The implantation of re- 
search, the promotion of postgraduate study, and the requirement 
of it for advanced degrees, and notably for the master's degree, as 
over against the Oxford and Cambridge conferment of it for a mere 
fee, served to counterbalance the popular activities of these institu- 
tions, which otherwise might have led to superficiality. The Uni- 
versity of London, that had been of service to the university colleges 

» Cf. Ch. XIX, " University Extension," p. 249. passim. 
«Cf. Ch. XII, "State Aid and Visitation," p. 190. 



108 HIGHER EDUCATION IlST ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

by giving its degrees to their students, became an external influence, 
not as an example but as a warning. After their experience with a 
mere examining university, by reaction they established themselves 
as fundamentally teaching institutions. In 1899 Prof. Sonnenschein 
stated the case : 

But it is quite a mistake to regard the right of granting degrees as the be-all 
and end-all of a university. Such a perversion of the truth lias only become 
possible in recent times, since the foundation of an institution in London which 
avowedly aims at nothing more than this. And it is sometimes forgotten that 
the degrees of the University of London have come to bear a new meaning; 
they no longer denote membership of a corporation of learning, but are simply 
and solely labels * * * Useful as the work has been which it has done 
in the past, it has become clear that the time has come to replace it by some- 
thing better * * *. It is not enough to provide means whereby knowledge, 
however acquired, may be tested and hall marked ; it is necessary to provide 
the means of acquiring that knowledge.' 

Before the local and general creative forces could bring the new 
universities to full birth, certain traditional political and legal 
difficulties had to be overcome. Battles had to be fought for 
charters. In 1877 after 25 years of successful life, Owens College 
petitioned the Privy Council to grant a charter converting the 
college into the University of Manchester. Opposition to the project 
was raised in various quarters, particularly in Manchester's rival 
neighboring cities, Leeds and Liverpool. Yorkshire College, Leeds, 
sent up a memorial praying, if a new university was to be created, 
that it should be a new corporation Avith powers to incorporate 
Owens College and other institutions, and that the university should 
not bear the name of a town or of any person that would give it a 
purely local aspect. The result was a charter in 1880 constituting 
Victoria LTniversity at Manchester, with Owens College as a con- 
stituent college, and with powers to admit other colleges in different 
localities.- In 1881: the University College, Liverpool, was admitted, 
and the Yorkshire College, Leeds, in 1887. Victoria L"^niversity was 
helped to overcome resistance by the vague notion that it was in some 
sense a federation of colleges, remotely analagous to Oxford and 
Cambridge, and the university of the north of England. The idea 
of a " single-college university '' had yet to make its way. Victoria 
as the university of the north of England was suggestive of the 
thought of a university for the Midlands. 

The new departure was really made when, in 1900, a charter was 
granted to the University of Birmingham, due to the brilliant leader- 
ship of the late Joseph Chamberlain. Encouraged by this prece- 
dent, University College, Liverpool, the corporation of the city, and 

^ Supra, Birmingham Daily Post, Apr. 24, 1899. N. B., written before the reconsti- 
tution of the University of London. 

aCf. Oh. XIII, "Coordination of Institutions," p. 195. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 109 

other corporations of large and important towns in the district pe- 
titioned the King to grant a charter incorporating a University in 
Liverpool. This invohed secession from Victoria University and 
its probable dissolution. The petition was referred by the crown 
to a committee of the Privy Council. Counter petitions and me- 
morials were presented by those in favor of continuing Victoria Uni- 
versity. Leeds and some advocates of the external examination 
system strongly opposed the policy of " what were nicknamed Lilli- 
putian universities." After an extended hearing of experts and 
deliberations by the committee, on February 10, 1903, an order in 
council pronounced that a case had been made out for a grant of 
university charters to Liverpool and Manchester. It was added that 
the step involved issues of great moment and that " cooperation 
was expedient between universities of a common type and with 
cognate aims." Lord Haldane has w^ell said: 

The date of this order in council is, I think, a memorable one. It gave State 
recognition to a new policy. * * * The principle was accepted that the 
number of the English universities was to be increased and their headquarters 
were to be in cities.^ 

Victoria University, for certain legal and historical purposes, 
remains as a name at Manchester. 

A review of the objects set out in almost identical language in the 
charters of the half dozen new^ universities and the prominent fea- 
tures they have in common will elucidate their characteristics. Their 
charters define the universities as both teaching and examining 
bodies and as designed to further the prosecution of original re- 
search in all branches of knowledge. More particularly they are to 
confer degrees, diplomas, and certificates on persons of either sex. 
They ma}^ provide instruction in every faculty, in all branches of 
education. They are to have regard to the instruction that may be 
of service to persons engaged in the pursuits — commercial, manu- 
facturing, industrial, or artistic — of the locality. They are to have 
facilities for the prosecution of original research. They may estab- 
lish fellowships, scholarships, exhibitions, prizes, and rewards to 
encourage scholarship and aid students. They may examine and 
inspect schools and provide extension lectures and affiliate other 
colleges or institutions.- 

' Haldane, Viscount. " The Civic University," an address delivered to the citizens of 
Bristol (reprint from the Hibbert Journal, Jan., 1913), p. 4. For the record of the 
ease in the Privy Council Dec. 17-19, 1902, cf. " Victoria University, Petition of TTni- 
versity College, Liverpool, for charter as an independent university and the further 
petitions, statements, and testimony in the case." This battle royal, with the reconsti- 
tution of university of London in 1900 laying the loundations for a teaching university 
there, marks a turning point in the history of university education in England. 

2Cf. Chs. XIII, "Coordination of Institutions," p. 203; XIX, "University Extension," 
p. 249, passim. 



110 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The plan of government for these uniA'ersities is practically the 
same ^ and thoroughly representative. Their buildings are, of course, 
new. They are substantial, compact, with architectural features and 
modern equipment, and located generally near the heart of the cities. 
The institutions from which they sprang were planted in the center of 
the cities upon small sites. Birmingham has inaugurated a departure 
in erecting the inevitable additional buildings upon 45 acres of 
ground 3 miles from the center of the city. 

All the six universities have faculties of arts, of science, of medi- 
cine, and departments for the training of teachers. AVith the 
exception of Birmingham,- they have a faculty of applied science or 
engineering or technology. Manchester, Liverpool, and Sheffield have 
faculties of law, which is included in the faculty of arts in Leeds. 
Manchester alone has a facidty of theology and one of music. Bir- 
mingham and Manchester have faculties of commerce and Leeds and 
Liverpool departments. 

Taking the departments together in all these universities, they 
cover broadly modern languages and literatures, historical, economic, 
and social sciences, and the physical and biological sciences and their 
applications. The enumeration of the degrees, diplomas, and certifi- 
cates which may be secured in one or more of these universities makes 
conspicuous the range of subjects taught.^ 

The academic j^ear for residence at the older universities, nomi- 
nally 24 weeks, has been lengthened by the newer universities to 32 
weeks. 

*Cf. Chs. IX. "The Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159, passim; 
X, " University Officers," p. 180. 

2 In Birmingham the faculty of science includes chairs in engineering, and gives B. Sc. 
degrees in pure science and in applied science. 

8 Degrees and diplomas: Bachelor of arts (B. A.) ; bachelor of architecture (B. Arch.) ; 
bachelor of commerce (B. Com.) ; master of arts (M. A.) ; master of commerce (M. Com.) ; 
doctor of letters (Lift. D.) not hon. ; bachelor of science (B. Sc, and in Applied Sci.) ; 
master of science (M. Sc.) ; doctor of science (D. Sc), not hon. ; bachelor of laws 
(LL. B.) ; master of laws (LL. M.) ; doctor of laws (LL. D.), not hon.; bachelor of 
medicine and bachelor of surgery (M. B., Ch. B.) ; doctor of medicine (M. D.) ; master 
of hygiene (M. H.) ; bachelor of dental surgery (B. D. S.) ; master of dental surgery 
(M. D. S.) ; bachelor of divinity (B. D.) ; doctor of divinity (D. D.) ; bachelor of engi- 
neering (B. Eng.) or bachelor of technical science (B. Sc. Tech.) ; B. Sc. in Agriculture; 
B. Sc. in Public Health; master of engineering (M. Eng.) or master of technical science 
(M. Sc. Tech.) ; doctor of engineering (D. Eng.), not hon. : bachelor of music (Mus. B.) ; 
master of music (Mus. M.) ; bachelor of metallurgy (B. Met.) ; master of metallurgy 
(M. Met.); doctor of metallurgy (D. Met.), not hon.; doctor philosophise (D. Phil.). 
The following diplomas are granted by one or more of the universities : Diploma In 
architecture ; in civic design ; in commerce ; in civil engineering ; in education ; in elec- 
trical engineering ; in domestic science ; in coal mining ; in dyeing ; in dentistry ; in 
fuel and metallurgy ; in gas engineering ; in leather manufacture and textile industries ; 
in mining; in modern language teaching; in public health (D. P. H.) ; in tropical medi- 
cine (D. T. M.) ; in psychological medicine; in social organization and public service; 
in ophthalmic surgery (D. Ch. O.) ; in veterinary State medicine or veterinary hygiene 
(D. V. H.) ; in anatomy; in bacteriology; in biochemistry; in parasitology. 

Certificates are granted in architecture ; in biblical knowledge ; in civic design ; in 
commercial sciences ; in applied chemistry ; in separate arts subjects ; in separate engi- 
neering and technical subjects ; in factory hygiene ; in school hygiene ; in sanitary inspec- 
tion ; in social work ; for teachers ; for works pupils in engineering. 



THE NEW OR PEOVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. Ill 

The conditions of admission tend to be more stringent than at the 
older universities. In general, no man student may be admitted who 
ib less than 16 years and no woman student who is less than 17 years 
ol age. The practice of some Oxford and Cambridge colleges of 
admitting students to membership before they have passed respon- 
sions or the previous examination is not paralleled, since for all 
degree courses the matriculation examination or an equivalent must 
be passed at entrance. Oxford responsions is only considered an 
equivalent to the matriculation examination when it includes both 
geometry and algebra and an additional subject. Likewise the 
Cambridge previous examination must include the passing of Parts 
I and II and an additional subject.^ The standard of admission is 
safeguarded by means of a joint matriculation board- of the Uni- 
versities of Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Sheffield, provided for 
in their charters. The arrangement is a trace of the earlier Vic- 
toria University. This stiffening of entrance requirements by the 
younger universities, as has often been the case in America, springs 
from the desire to retain the respect of the older universities, to 
avoid "underselling" by competing universities, and to counteract 
the influence of the lower standards for certain courses and part- 
time students within the universities. In the lack of strict colle- 
giate or residential supervision these universities tend toward a 
strict requirement of attendance upon courses of study, and the 
weighing of the whole record of the student and not simply of his 
intermediate and final examinations for his degree. 

These universities have clearly added a fifth type to the previous 
types of British universities. There were the intercollegiate residen- 
tial type of Oxford and Cambridge, the continuation of the original 
university teaching type of Scotland, the nonteaching and examina- 
tion type of the older L^niversity of London, and the Federal type 
of the earlier "Victoria, Welsh, and Irish universities. Sir Alfred 
Hopkinson has urged that there is not a difference of a higher and 
lower type, nor of subjects of instruction, but that the point of differ- 
ence lies in State aid.^ 

While this is a point of difference, inasmuch as the State or the 
municipality does not affect ownership and direct control, they are 
rot properly State institutions, and this factor may not give the 
name to the type. While not a lower, they may be said to be a wider, 
type than the old universities. They are, in fact, a composite type. 
They derive and combine features from the four preceding types, 
stress activities which had been unstressed, and take the broadest 

' Cf. Chs. XVI, " Examinations," and XVII, " Curricula." 
2 Cf. Ch. XIII, " Coordination of Institutions," pp. 200-201. 

» Hopkinson, Sir Alfred, "Address, Sec. L., British Assoc, for the Advancement of 
Science," 1913. Cf. Ch. XII, " State Aid and Visitation." 



112 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

views of the scope of a university, so that they are nothing less than 
a new type. They are, in fact, the nearest type in the Old World to 
the American university and particularly the State university. The 
development of the professional and scientific schools in the nineteenth 
century in Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, and the leading 
State universities, with an added impulse to special service of the 
State in the latter, the appearance of Cornell, a halfway State in- 
stitution, of Johns Hopkins, emphasizing research, and of municipal 
universities like Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, are tokens of the type. 
Indeed, Mr. Carnegie made the suggestion to Mr. Chamberlain, in 
offering to contribute to the foundation of the University of Bir- 
mingham, that it should take Cornell as a model at least on the 
science side. 

The brief but brilliant history of the new English universities is 
confirmatory of the wisdom of the older American universities in 
branching out to meet modern demands, and of the wisdom of 
planting State universities. 

MANCHESTER. 

Despite their likeness to one another, each one of the new univer- 
sities has not only an atmosphere, but an individuality of its own. 
Manchester is not only the first in time, but in size and strength and 
variety of activity. It is a slow growth of individual origin repre- 
sentative of the north of England. The first attempt to secure a uni- 
versity in Manchester for the north of England failed in the Parlia- 
ment of 1640. Near the close of the eighteenth century, a paper, 
"A plan for improvement and extension of liberal education in Man- 
chester," was published. It proposed a " connection between liberal 
science and commercial industry." 

The Manchester Mechanic's Institution, founded in 1824, resulted 
in the development of the Municipal School of Technology, which 
has not been without effect upon the university, and is now in happy 
cooperation with it in a faculty of technology.^ 

The immediate origin of the university is due to the bequest of one 
of Manchester's merchant princes, John Owens, who died in 1846. 
He provided that instruction should be " in such branches of learning 
and science as are usually taught in the English universities." He 
laid down the principle that there should be no theological tests for 
either teachers or students, and that nothing must " be introduced in 
the matter or mode of education in reference to any religious or theo- 
logical subject which shall be reasonably offensive to the conscience 
of any student." Here is the modern founder succeeding the old- 

1 Of. Chs. XIII, " Coordination of Institutions ; " XIV, "Applied Science and Profes- 
sional Education." 



THE NEW OR PEOVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 113 

time pious founder. True to university ideals and substituting re- 
ligious toleration for religious tests, he represented the spirit of Man- 
chester. Its ancient grammar school had kept alive some notion of 
the classics in the center of the " workshop of the world." The vig- 
orous controversy of churchmen and nonconformists had made Man- 
chester as famous for freedom of thought as had its political school 
for free trade. It is at least a noteworthy coincidence that when, in 
1851, Owens College was opened, it was housed in what was formerly 
the residence of Richard Cobden. One of the valuable contributions 
of this institution is that it has shown, without violating Owens's 
rule, how a secular university may happily have a faculty of the- 
ology.^ It is surprising how simply and effectively this has been 
done. Theological schools of seven different denominations have been 
recognized by the university for external lectures of the faculty. 
The courses of lectures in the faculty fall into three classes. Firstly, 
are the courses, which are delivered within the university buildings 
by professors and lecturers of the university in the faculties of arts 
and science, in noncontroversial subjects like Hellenistic Greek, He- 
brew, and comparative religion. Secondly, are courses by lecturers 
of the university which are delivered elsewhere than in the univer- 
sit}^ buildings, open to members of the colleges in which the lectures 
are delivered on conditions approved by the colleges in question, and 
open to other students of the university on payment of fees. Thirdly, 
are external courses recognized by the university given by others 
than lecturers of the university. 

A milestone in the pathway of Owens College to become a univer- 
sity was marked by the incorporation with it in 1872 of the old Man- 
chester Royal College of Medicine and the opening of new buildings 
in 1873. 

The policy of establishing a public-health laboratory as an inte- 
gral part of a university naturally followed in due time and has 
been vindicated by Manchester. Under the public-health act, 1875, 
England was divided into sanitary districts. Every district council 
had to appoint a medical officer of health. Beginning in 1892, in 
districts of 50,000 or more inhabitants the officer was obliged to be 
the holder of a diploma in sanitary science, public health, or State 
medicine. When this regulation came into force the teaching of 
public health was fully organized at Owens College, and the newly 
appointed professor of pathology secured by 1894 a well-fitted lab- 
oratory. The university placed the pathological department at the 
service of public authorities upon the payment of fees toward the 
expenses of investigations carried out for them. The movement thus 



^Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 207. 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 8 



114 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

started in Manchester in 1892 has resulted in the adoption of a 
similar system by many authorities in the Kingdom. The extensive 
public-health laboratories of the university, opened in 1905, are one 
of the evidences of the direct benefit to a university of immediate 
service of the public. The investigations demanded by the public 
have stimulated the teaching and led to postgraduate study 
and research, and to the publication of valuable contributions to 

knowledge.^ 

The department of public health is but a specimen of the oppor- 
tunities for research offered by Manchester. It has given such atten- 
tion to its facilities for advanced studies in the faculties of arts, of 
science, of medicine, and of technology that it has drawn by far 
the largest number of graduate students of any of the six universi- 
ties. It instituted research degrees, open to graduates or persons 
who have passed the degree examination of other approved univer- 
sities and, under certain conditions, to candidates not so qualified. 
From the beginning Owens College was fortunate in securing pro- 
fessors who became known internationally as authorities in their 
subjects. The libraries of the university are supplemented by some 
of the largest and rarest libraries in the Kingdom, like the John 
Ry lands and the Chetham Libraries. There is a series of new labo- 
ratories, as well as of old ones with new extensions, made famous by 
the investigations carried on in them by distinguished men of science. 
There is an especial equipment of research laboratories open not only 
to the staff and advanced students, but also, under certain conditions, 
to outside investigators. A valuable adjunct for research is found 
in the Manchester Museum, established for the promotion of natural 
science. 

The synthetic chronological arrangement of the museum helped to 
introduce the present era of wide attention to the reform of the 
administration and classification of museums for the benefit both 
of the public and colleges. The museum is an example of the align- 
ment of the forces of a localit}^ with its university. The nucleus 
of the museum consists of the specimens which the Manchester 
Natural History and Geological Societies deposited in trust with 
the authorities of Ow^ens Trust. The museum is under the manage- 
ment of a joint committee representing the university, the Man- 
chester corporation, and the subscribers. 

Manchester has one of the strongest dental departments, which 
in accordance with the British practice forms an integral part of 
the faculty of medicine.^ Here we have another happy illustration 

1 " Report of the Advisory Committee on the Building and Opening of the new Lab- 
oratory at York Place and Directors' Report for the Session 1904-5." 
2Cf. Oh. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 208. 



THE NEW OR PEOVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 115 

of the association with the university of private and of city founda- 
tions. The dental hospital of Manchester, founded in 1884, for the 
purposes of charity and also of a dental school, with a fine new 
dental hospital opened in 1909 in proximity to the university, is for 
practical purposes the dental hospital of the university department. 
The dental student, like the medical student, has the use of the 
new Manchester Royal Infirmary, which was relocated near the uni- 
versit}^, and is another case of association with it. 

One of the latest illustrations of the convergence of educational 
forces in the university is the establishment of the Fielden School 
near the college for the special purpose of demonstration and prac- 
tice in connection with the university courses in child study, school 
hygiene, and class teaching. The school is conveyed to the univer- 
sity under a trust deed providing for a special committee, of man- 
agement. Investigations into problems of class teaching are con- 
ducted in the Fielden demonstration school, where some 200 scholars 
attend, distributed into 10 classes and ranging in age from 5 to 15 
years. The investigations are reviewed in a graduate seminar in 
which the demonstrators in the department and the staff of teachers 
in the school participate.^ In addition to the demonstration school 
the department has the benefit of association with a large number 
of schools, both elementary and secondary, and with special institu- 
tions in Manchester and the neighborhood. 

In 1914 the university instituted the new faculty of education, to 
deal with the higher degree of master in education.^ This makes it 
possible for the day-training students, in the first instance, to pre- 
pare for the bachelor's degree either in arts or in science, and sub- 
sequently, if they desire to specialize in education, to take the mas- 
ter's degree in education. It is intended to give the students in the 
department of education equal facilities with students in arts and 
science in obtaining the higher degree. This is one of the latest 
steps in the recognition of education as deserving a graduate profes- 
sional school like the other professions. 

In addition to the 9 faculties ^ and the departments mentioned, the 
activities of the university include departments of pharmac}^, the 
seven divisions of technology,* the school of architecture, special 
popular and evening courses, university extension lectures, agricul- 
ture, and a university press. 

Manchester has brought into — 
line all types of higher education which a great community requires. * * * 
This epoch of comprehension and amalgamation is now fairly complete ; the 

1 Findlay, J. J.. M. A., Ph. D., Sarah Fielden Prof, of Education, "The Demonstra- 
tion Schools Record." Sadler, M. E., LL. D., " The Department of Education in the 
University of Manchester. 1890-1911." Manchester Univ. Publications. 

- Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," pp. 210-212. 

' Arts, science, theology, law, medicine, music, technology, commerce, education. 

* Mechanical, electrical, sanitary engineering, applied chemistry, mining, architecture, 
textile manufacture. 



116 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

process has involved not so much an increase in the number of students and the 
size of classes as a really astounding complexity in the provision for higher 
teaching.* 

Manchester stands for an extensive development of the type of the 
new university. We shall treat the other five specimens of the type 
more briefly, it being understood that they have essentially the same 
features. We shall endeavor merely to take up points specially char- 
acteristic of each one which may be suggestive for us. 

BIRMINGHAM, 

As already noted, the University of Birmingham stands as the 
pioneer in England of the "single college university."- It comes 
the nearest to being a purely municipal university because of its 
origin, forged out of long-standing local institutions through the 
zeal of a group of city men under the leadership of an idol of the 
municipality — Joseph Chamberlain. The city had long been known 
as a center of progressive educational policy, the home of the founder 
of the National Education League and a friend of the act of 187U 
and of succeeding educational reforms. The city is practically with 
out a rival in the extensive territory of the Midlands tributary to it. 
" Birmingham is the supreme of industrial individualism " according 
to one of its inhabitants.^ 

The university is in one sense isolated, not being a member of any 
joint matriculation or examining board. It sets its own standards. 

To appreciate the independence and the atmosphere of the uni- 
versity, we must go back of the movement resulting in its organiza- 
tion in 1900 to its origin in the Mason's Science College, and further 
to the personality of Sir Josiah Mason, its founder. In 1875, on his 
eightieth birthday, in laying the first stone of the college building, 
he states the motive and purpose of his gift. A son of poverty, he 
had made a fortune by the manufacture of split rings and steel pens, 
having begun business in gilt toy-making, then one of the staple 
trades of Birmingham. He said: 

When I was a young man thei'e were no means of scientific teaching open to 
the artisan classes of our manufacturing town. * * * My wish is to give 
all classes in Birmingham and in the district * * * the means of carrying 
on in the Midlands district their scientific studies as completely and thoroughly 
as they can be prosecuted in the great science schools of this country and the 
Continent, for I am persuaded that in this way alone — by the acquirement of 
sound, extensive, and practical scientific knowledge — can England hope to 
maintain her position as the manufacturing center of the world.* 

1 The Times Educational Supplement, Jan. 6, 1914. Cf. ibid., Feb. 3, 1914. 

2Cf. p. 108. 

' The Times Educational Supplement, Apr. 7, 1914. 

* Bunce, John Thackray, " Josiah Mason. A Biography," 1882, pp. 99, 101. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 117 

In his original deed of trust he declared his intention to found a 
college for the '' study of practical science," to the exclusion of mere 
literary education and of all teaching of theology. By subsequent 
deeds he empowered the trustees to enlarge the scope of the college 
to qualify it for admission as a constituent member of the London or 
the Victoria or any other university with a complete course in arts. 
He only excluded theology and politics. The breadth of the institu- 
tion, a gift at that time without parallel in the annals of modern edu- 
cation in England, was due to Sir Josiah's wisdom, unlike that of the 
ordinary self-made man, in seeking the advice of experts. He se- 
lected as trustees a Cambridge graduate and distinguished representa- 
tives of the professions. In its origin the university was not with- 
out influence from the King Edward VI Gramhiar School, with its 
classical traditions, and, on its popular side, from the Birmingham 
and Midland Institute, incorporated in 1864. The thought of graft- 
ing his college upon the latter had even passed through the mind of 
Sir Josiah. The institute prepared the way for the Birmingham 
Technical School, opened in 1891, the school of art, the municipal 
school of commerce, and numerous evening classes. In the light of 
the above facts it is easy to see why the University of Birmingham 
has not evening classes and was organized Avith only three faculties, 
those of science, of arts, of medicine, and the faculty of science, 
including engineering, placed before the faculty of arts. 

The erection and equipment of the extensive new buildings for 
science and engineering of the university, 2-J miles from the old 
Mason College, have given a prominence to engineering, metallurgy, 
and mining. The metal industries of Birmingham encouraged the 
endowment of a chair of metallurgy, and the mines of the neighbor- 
hood have led to special attention to coal and metal mining. The 
faculty of arts has made special provision for training for public 
and social service, in cooperation with organizations in the city, like 
the women's settlement, the Woodbrooke settlement, founded by the 
Society of Friends, the Diocesan Training Home, the City of Bir- 
mingham Aid Societ}'^, the Birmingham Charity Organization 
Society, and various unions. The social study diplomas are awarded 
for success in certain university courses requiring visits of observa- 
tion and practical work. 

There is no faculty of music, but a professor of music in the faculty 
of arts. The degree of D. Mus. is given to those passing in the 
matriculation examination and an examination in the rudiments of 
music and, in addition to the three years' courses in music, three 
courses in the faculty of arts, one of which must be English literature, 
and another a course in modern foreign language. 

A specialty of the university is the department of biology and 
chemistry of fermentation and a brewing school. In addition to the 



118 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

degree courses, there are diploma courses, a special diploma course 
for graduates, and certificate and shorter courses for brewers and 
maltsters. 

In 1903 Birmingham led the way in establishing a fourth faculty, 
the faculty of commerce, and called to be its dean an Oxford man, 
who had been a professor at both Toronto and Harvard. The influ- 
ence of departments of higher commercial education in modern demo- 
cratic universities in America, and of the commercial colleges in 
Germany, recognized by the Government as of university rank, has 
been felt.^ The courses of instruction have two objects in view, the 
combination of liberal culture with utility, and a due regard for the 
different requirements of different branches of commercial life. 

The curriculum for candidates for the degree of B. Com. covers 
three years. Certain specifically commercial courses are required of 
all candidates. One modern language is prescribed for three years. 
A noteworthy choice is given to two classes of students, those ex- 
pecting to be engaged in the commercial conduct of manufacturing , 
and those who expect to be merchants in the narrower sense of the 
term. The first group may devote about one-third of their time to 
work in applied science. 

The options also include subjects likely to be useful to those who 
propose to enter upon the commercial management of collieries and 
other mines, or of agricultural undertakings, or business life in the 
colonies. A similar freedom of choice of studies in the faculty of 
arts is given to those intending to enter upon railway or shipping 
management, or looking forward to service in consular or municipal 
departments, in chambers of commerce, in stockbroking or financial 
houses. 

The faculty of commerce has taken under its wing a scheme for a 
course for journalists until such time as a full degree course in one of 
the faculties, with the technicalities of journalism as one of the sub- 
sidiary subjects, can be instituted.- A certificate is proposed for 
journalists of the neighborhood who attend university lectures for 
five hours a week for two years and pass the examination. The 
group of subjects recommended centers about literary and historical 
topics and includes certain commercial, economic, and social courses. 

The faculty of medicine, like that of Manchester, includes dental 
courses organized by the university in association with the dental 
hospital. The medical faculty, after the fashion of many American 
universities, offers a combined course of six years, instead of five, by 
which university students may obtain the B. Sc. in addition to the 
medical degree. 



1 Ed-wards, Allen, F. C. A., " What the Birmingham University is doing in the interests 
of higher commercial education." Revised and reprinted from " The Jeweller and Metal- 
worker," June 15, 1906, Unwln, London. 

«Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 212. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 119 

The university has a scheme tor vacation reading by which books 
are named for a course of reading preliminary or supplementary to 
the courses given in the university. 

The university is beginning to use its powers of affiliating other 
institutions in affiliating the Midland Institute. It is even arrang- 
ing a quasi affiliation of two theological colleges. Forbidden itself 
to teach theological subjects, it is yet able to make arrangements to 
enable theological students in approved colleges to take one or two 
years for the B. A. degree in these colleges. The university has tem- 
porarily loaned some of its lecture rooms and laboratories to the mu- 
nicipal technical college for evening classes, another illustration of 
the way in which it has been cooperative with surrounding institu- 
tions. 

Birmingham may be compared in its aggressive spirit and ac- 
tivities to an American town full of manufactures of Yankee 
notions. Keen mental activity issues in an interest in education 
and particularly in the branches advantageous for the products of 
the place. Institutions founded by private enterprise are sustained, 
if not actually supported, by the pride of the city.^ Of the six 
civic universities, Birmingham has the largest annual contribution 
from the city treasury, and the most valuable grounds, buildings, and 
equipment. It is a monument to local education and patriotism. 

LIVERPOOL. 

The rivalry between the cities and the Universities of Manchester 
and Liverpool, places and institutions in proximity and almost of 
equal size, has resulted in universities quite alike in extent, but 
with marked contrast in details due to differences in the history of 
the localities. Owens College gave Manchester an apparent start 
of 30 years. But preparatory movements had long been at work in 
Liverpool. The Athenaeum, founded in 1799, and the Eoyal Insti- 
tution, in 1817, fostered the humanities. The medical school estab- 
lished in connection with the Eoyal Infirmary in 1834, realizing the 
necessity of the scientific training preliminary to the study of medi- 
cine, became the primal germ of the university. In 1836 a member 
of the town council urged in the meeting of the council that a uni- 
versity was the chief need of the town. After 1857 an attempt was 
made to organize evening courses to prepare for the degrees of the 
university of London, in a so-called Queen's College. In the late 
seventies university extension lectures conducted from Cambridge 

^ C(. The Birmingham School of Art, founded by private subscription, taken over by 
the municipality and largely sustained by a direct city tax levy ; also a school of jewelers 
and silversmiths taljen over by the city council. (Report of Consul Albert Halstoad. 
"Artistic Education in Birmingham." Daily consular and trade reports, Washington, 
Dec. 3, 1910, p. 845.) 



120 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

and the example of the founding of university colleges in other great 
toAvns stimulated the local movement to establish such a college. In 
1878 town meetings were convened by the mayor in the interest of 
the proposed college. Public-spirited citizens continued the agita- 
tion, made special appeals to men concerned with literature or 
science, secured subscriptions amounting to $500,000, and in 1881 
a charter for the college. 

Liverpool lies near enough to Ireland to have the usual religious 
differences in England accentuated by the division between Roman 
Catholic and Protestant. The usual provision in the charter that 
there should be no religious tests w^as ironclad, with the addition that 
no gift or endowment should be accepted to w'hich any theological 
condition was attached. The competition with Owens College, con- 
stituted a college in the new Victoria University in 1880, became 
acute in 1883, when by a supplementary charter Victoria University 
was empowered to confer medical degrees in addition to others. 
Driven by this circumstance, the Liverpool Royal Infirmary School 
of Medicine became incorporated with the new University College, 
and the college sought and gained admission as a constituent college 
of Victoria University in 1894. After this date the rapid growth 
of the college, the inconvenience of doing business at Manchester, 
the seat of Victoria LTniversity, and the success of Birmingham 
in 1900 in gaining a charter for an independent or unfederated 
university, precipitated an appeal to the privy council for the dis- 
solution of the ties with Victoria University, which ended in the 
granting of the Liverpool University charter in 1903. The increased 
expenditure entailed by the establishment of the university has beer 
met by public subscription, and by increased grants from ' His 
Majesty's treasury, from the city of Liverpool, and from the coun- 
cils of adjacent counties and other corporations. 

The college and the university extended their range of activity 
and adopted the policy of cooperation with authorities and organi- 
zations outside the institution. There is a suggestive list of such 
undertakings. The Day Training College for teachers in elementary 
schools was opened in 1891 with a board of management of lay as 
well as of academic members. 

The school of hygiene is conducted in conjunction with the health 
committee of the corporation for the systematic instruction of in- 
spectors and others in matters of public health. 

The school of commerce was originated in 1889 under the direction 
of a committee representing the college, the municipal authorities, 
and the leaders of commerce. 

The school of tropical medicine, founded in 1898, and incorporated 
in 1905, is governed by a committee representing the university, the 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 121 

Royal Southern Hospital, and the merchants and shipowners of 
Liverpool. It and its twin school in London ^ sprang from the im- 
perial thinking of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain when in the office of 
colonial secretary. 

The school of veterinary medicine, established in 1904 under a 
board of veterinary studies, makes use of university buildings, cor- 
poration veterinary hospitals, and public abattoirs. 

The school of dental surgery under the board of dental studies is 
one of the largest of the kind and has an attendance of nearly 100 
students. As early as 1893 a school of architecture and applied arts 
was started. Later the art classes were incorporated with a muni- 
cipal art school. The school of architecture was continued in the 
university as a professional school for architects, at a university 
standard, on a level with other professional schools. The teaching 
staff in purely architectural subjects is supplemented by teachers of 
cognate subjects in the faculties of arts, science, and engineering. 

The school of civic design, or of town planning and landscape 
architecture, was added in 1909 as a department of the school of 
architecture. It is the only school in this country exclusively de- 
signed to meet the needs of students who wish to study town 
planning. 

The school of social science and of training for social work is 
the outcome of arrangements by the university with the central 
relief society, the Victoria settlement for women, and the university 
settlement for men. 

The school of local history and records furnishes systematic train- 
ing in the study and editing of the history of records of the city 
of Liverpool and adjoining counties. Courses are given in paleog- 
raphy, diplomatics, English numismatics, and the bibliography and 
sources of English mediaeval history. 

The school of Eussian studies was initiated in 1907 by the mayor 
of Liverpool and the chamber of commerce. The subject is recog- 
nized for the university degree or for a certificate. Attention is 
given to the qualifying of Englishmen for posts in connection with 
Russian trade. The school issues " The Russian Review," containing 
results of researches in Russia and translations. 

There is a school of pharmacy. Research fellowships and scholar- 
ships, chiefly for research in medical or other scientific subjects, 
include some open to members of colonial universities and medical 
schools and to members of universities and medical schools in the 
United States. 

The number of postgraduate students at the university testifies 
that it has not forgotten, amidst its wide activities, to reserve strength 

^ Cf. Ch. XV, "Advanced Study and Research without Graduate Schools," p. 217. 



122 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

for research. Another evidence to the vahie it places on the work of 
the faculty of arts as well as research is the Institute of Archaeology, 
founded in 1904. 

The world-wide environment of the University of Liverpool, situ- 
ated at one of the world's greatest ports, gives the university a 
peculiarly imperial and international aspect. " Liverpool is the 
Venice of our times and has its Padua within its own borders."^ 

LEEDS. 

The University of Leeds, imbued with the strenuous and demo- 
cratic spirit of Yorkshire, is perhaps the nearest like a Western State 
university of any university in England. Under the recent leader- 
ship of a cosmopolitan student of education,- it has had a vigorous 
administration, extending its activities, and not fearing to embark 
upon experiments. As a constituent college in Victoria University 
from 1887 to 1904 w^ith Owens College, Manchester, and University 
College, Liverpool, it bears a close resemblance to them. In pro- 
portion to the population of the cities, Leeds receives larger local 
support than its sisters. As Yorkshire College, the name by which 
it was known as a constituent of Victoria University, it stoutly op- 
posed the dissolution of the Federal university. The event, how- 
ever, caused a rally of Leeds to its renewed support. The enlivened 
competition of Manchester, Liverpool, and Sheffield may have 
further redounded to its good. Like the other universities, it shows 
traces of its earlier origin. Yorkshire College, founded as York- 
shire College of Science in 1874, rose in the period of the introduc- 
tion of modern science into education and of Huxley's influence. 
The older Leeds School of Medicine, begun in 1831, was driven, 
in view of the empowering of Manchester to grant degrees in medi- 
cine, to amalgamate with the Yorkshire College in 1884. 

As in the case of the Mason College of Science, Birmingham, the 
traditions of Oxford, Cambridge, and Scotch universities permeated 
the college of science, and in 1877 the faculty of arts was implanted 
in the Yorkshire College of Science. This faculty has flourished 
amidst a predominance of scientific courses. It has been modern- 
ized and includes a department of economics and commerce, of edu- 
cation, and of law. Departments of Greek and Latin have doubled 
their staffs and practically the number of students since the inaugu- 
ration of the university, at which time the honors school of classics 
was instituted. These departments are contributing to classical 

1 The Times Edu. Supplement, Feb. 3, 1914. 

Cf. University College and the University of Liverpool, 1882-1907 (Univ. Press of 
Liverpool, 1907) ; Muir, Ransay, " The University of Liverpool. Its present state." 
Liverpool. 1907. 

a Vice Chancellor M. E. Sadler, LL. D., Litt. D., C. B. 



THE NEW OR PEOVINCIAL UNIVEBSITIES. 123 

knowledge, local history, and making an opportunity for research 
by conducting excavations of Roman sites in Yorkshire. One of the 
classical lecturers is devoting himself particularly to the study of 
Roman Yorkshire, and the other to that of Greek inscriptions. The 
university has endeavored to interest the general public in classical 
life and literature by the performances of Greek plays in English 
verse translation. The lure of the locality has added to the zest 
of investigations in the department of English language and litera- 
ture. In this region famous for dialect, dialectal research has been 
pursued by the university and the Yorkshire Dialects Society. Rec- 
ords of the speech are being made by means of a dictaphone. 

The faculty of technology looms large in Leeds.^ Chemistry in its 
various aspects is the central study in this university. There is a 
cooperative group of teachers and researchers in organic, inorganic 
physical, and biological chemistry, in chemistry of agriculture, 
color chemistry, chemistry of gases and fuel, and chemistry of the 
leather industries. The doctrine of the synthesis of departments is 
preached and practiced. The vice chancellor expresses it : 

A great work of science at this time is the brealiing down of division between 
the compartments of it. The growing lines of new thought are along the 
edges which mark what were once the separation o€ one branch of science 
from another. The fact that the departments of economics, the departments 
of education, and the departments of geography in our universities are all 
growing is an indication of this tendency toward intellectual synthesis — a 
synthesis which brings into the connnon stock, and which is able to focus on 
some common problem, knowledge drawn from many branches of investigation. 
In spite of this a good deal of our university training is departmentalized." 

The doctrine is admirably illustrated in the department of leather 
industries, with which there is nothing to compare except at Lyon.^ 
The department, in addition to teaching and research, freely serves 
the leather trade and is assisted by the Skinners Co., of the city of 
London, and by members of the leather trade. The department 
makes a great point of trying new things and the applications of 
science in practical work, in shop, and laboratory run together. 
Physics, chemistry, technical microscopy, bacteriology, and mycology 
are applied to leather manufacture. Within a dozen years revolu- 
tionary changes have been made in tanning. The age-long use of 
animal manures has been supplanted by artificial and hygienic 
" bates." Bacteriological cultures and coal tars have given us " syn- 
thetic tannins" — a triumph of the synthesis of departments. 

* It includes, In a series of buildings, agriculture, coal gas and fuel industries with 
metallurgy, engineering, leather industries, mining, tinctorial chemistry, and dyeing 
and textile industries. There are advisory committees (university and lay members) of 
council for the several departments. 

2 Sadler, Dr. M. E., vice chancellor of the University of Leeds, " The Official Report 
of the Church Congress held at Middlesburgh, 1912," p. 254. 

» ficole Francaise de Tannerie, founded 1899, as a section of ficole de Chimie Indus- 
trielle, an annexe In 1883 of the University de Lyon. 



124 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

A further practice of the doctrine of departmental synthesis is 
the weekly meeting of the science staff in a colloquium, to compare 
the points of view of all the departments with reference to a research 
in progress. The fruit of such cooperation is yielding original con- 
tributions to knowledge.^ 

In view of Leeds as a great center of woolen manufacture, the 
Cloth Workers Co. of the city of London established the tw^o de- 
partments of textile industries and of tinctorial chemistry and dye- 
ing, Avhich constituted an important part of the original Yorkshire 
College. They have continued the erection and equipment of the 
buildings and given a permanent endowment for the work. In addi- 
tion to instruction, provision has been made for experimental studies 
and research. 

A recent significant event is a reciprocal agreement between the 
university and the Bradford Technical College, under which students 
of the university make use of the practical dyehouse of the college, 
while Bradford students may attend certain lecture courses in the 
university. Members of the university and of the college have begun 
to collaborate in investigations made at the instance of the textile 
institute. Such cooperation in teaching and research between the 
close neighbors, Leeds and Bradford, both candidates formerly for 
the seat of the university, it is hoped will lead to a new era, which 
will be of advantage both to the university and the college.- 

The department of agriculture has its roots in every part of York- 
shire, and, in connection with the recent establishment by the Gov- 
ernment of the Animal Nutrition Research Institution and other 
steps, is becoming a great research station.' The Amercian example 
is not without effect in this field. 

In 1913 the city of Leeds new training college was opened by the- 
president of the board of education. He alluded to the nationaliza- 
tion of the training colleges and the increasing cooperation of local 
education committees working with one another and with the provin- 
cial universities.* This broad hint from the minister of education, 
reinforced by the liberal Government grants to the university and to 
the training college, may hasten the day of the coordination of the 
two institution^. The strong department of education in the univer- 
sity and the university's expansive policy and desire to serve the 
public, combined with the Yorkshire thrift of the local education 
authority, may be trusted to work out the problem in a way that will 
be instructive. 

1 Cf. Bragg, W. H. and W. L., " The Reflection of X-Rays by Crystals," Proc. of the 
Royal Society, A. Vol. 89, p. 246 ; " The Structure of Some Crystals, as Indicated by 
Their Diffraction of X-Rays," ibid., p. 248 ; ' The Structure of the Diamond," ibid., p. 
277 ; " The Reflection of X-Rays by Crystals," ibid., vol. 88, p. 428. 

« Cf. Ch. XIII, " Coordination of Institutions." 

aCf. Ch. VII, "Agricultural Colleges and Schools," pp. 139-147. 

*Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," pp. 211-212. 



THE NEW OR PEOVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 125 

SHEFFIELD. 

• 

The University of Sheffield perhaps comes the nearest of all to 
being a j)urely municipal university. This is true of its origin, con- 
flict for recognition, the district it serves, its support, its attendance, 
and its immediate purposes. As usual, in the order of time, a medi- 
cal institution was the beginning. But a popular rather than a 
professional need was really the origin which formulated itself in 
a so-called " People's College." In 1842 a Congregational minister, 
dissatisfied with the results of what he thought to be the too utili- 
tarian education of the popular Mechanic's Institutes, opened prac- 
tically by himself a college chiefly devoted to language and litera- 
ture. It was" the period of Chartism. It is a striking fact that in 
the year of revolutions (1848) the citizens of Sheffield held a public 
meeting to approve a scheme for the reorganization of the People's 
College.^ It was to be self-supporting and governed by the students. 
The foundation and success of the Sheffield People's College has 
more than a local interest. The Working Men's College of Great 
Ormond Street, London, owed its existence to the pioneer work of 
the Sheffield institution. Frederic Dennison Maurice stated, " We 
Avere plagiarists from the Sheffield people."^ The People's College 
was closed in 1879. Having fulfilled its mission, it gave way to the 
imiversity extension movement. The first series of extension lec- 
tures in connection with the University of Cambridge was begun in 
1875. The local enthusiasm was so great that the mayor, Mr. Mark 
Firth, donated a building for this work. Firth College was opened 
in 1879, the year before Owens College secured the charter for 
Victoria University. The idea of a university for the northern 
counties was in the air, and Sheffield was astir in the rivalry with 
Manchester and Leeds. 

There had been an increasing demand for some form of technical 
education. It began among apprentices at evening classes connected 
with the South Kensington science and art department organization. 
These classes were also started in the old Sheffield Mechanics Institu- 
tion. By 1883 the City and Guilds of London Institute granted an 
annual sum to found a professorship of mechanical engineering. 
The outcome was the founding of a technical school to provide in- 
struction in iron and steel metallurgy and in engineering, at first 
opened as a branch of Firth College. By 1897 a university college 
charter was obtained under which all interests were united. Sheffield 
had failed to be admitted to Victoria University. 

1 In this same period a colony of Congregationalists founded a " People's College," 
now known as Grinnell College, in Iowa, and the new State University of Iowa was 
housed in a Mechanics' Institute. 

2 Cf., Green, Prof. J. A.. " The University of Sheffield." British Association Hand- 
book and Guide to Sheffield, 1910, pp. 135-152, passim. 



126 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

At the time of the break-up of tl.j Victoria University, the sug- 
gestion that the University College of Leeds should become the 
university of Yorkshire stimulated Sheffield to raise funds for a 
university of its own. The city council passed a resolution approving 
of an application for a charter for- a university in Sheffield, and 
pledging a large annual grant. Grants were also promised from the 
County Councils of Derbyshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire 
and several town councils. An endowment fund of $500,000 was sub- 
scribed, and the charter was granted in 1905. Thus happily ended 
the struggle for recognition. 

The location of Sheffield, only just within the borders of Yorkshire, 
and the proximity of Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, and Nottingham, 
with their institutions, give the university a rather circuinscribed but 
thickly populated district. Its municipal area, however, is the 
largest in the country, and it is sustained by the enterprise of a 
homogeneous and growing manufacturing center.^ Sheffield has 
the largest percentage of total income from annual grants, from 
local authorities, of any of the six universities (29.2 per cent). 
Sheffield has a much larger attendance from the locality than the 
other universities, due in part to its numerous evening classes as 
well as to its situation. 

The charter of the university gives the usual unlimited scope to the 
university, but has the following suggestive section : 

To provide for such instruction, wlietlier theoretical, technical, artistic, or 
otherwise, as may be of service to persons engaged in or about to engage in 
education, commerce, engineering, metallurgy, mining, or other industries or 
artistic pursuits of the city of Sheffield and the adjacent counties and districts ; 
and to provide for the prosecution of original research in arts, pure science, 
applied science, medicine, surgery, law, and especially the applications of 
science. 

The world-wide fame of Sheffield as a center of iron and steel 
industries, of engineering and " the heavy trades," of armor and 
ordnance, the United States Government even placing orders there, 
of cutlery, and of silver plate, may well account for the preeminence 
given in the university to the departments of engineering, and of 
metallurgy, of iron, steel, and nonferrous metals. 

The dean of the faculty of applied science approved of the title 
"Applied Science"- as contradistinguished from technology, which 
deals with the application of science to trades. Applied science 
takes hold of advanced work not that of secondary schools. Applied 
science relates the trade school to the highest branches of science 
and passes over to the industries the ripest fruits of science. The 
engineering departments have extensive buildings by themselves, 

1 In the census of 1911 Sheffield showed the largest percentage of increase of popula- 
tion of any of the university cities, 11.1 per cent. 

2 Cf. Oh. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 205. 



THE NEW OR PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES. 127 

built upon the unit plan and recently enlarged. The metallurgical 
department, so far as iron and steel metallurg}'' is concerned, has 
unique laboratories. There is also a complete new suite of rooms and 
laboratories for the departments of nonferrous metallurgy, mining, 
and applied chemistry. 

- The war has brought to the flourishing industries of Sheffield an 
increased impetus. The recently appointed vice chancellor,^ an Ox- 
ford man of classical and historical attainments, in a speech since 
the beginning of the war, has held up the ideal that British uni- 
versities should rise to the opportunity of opening their facilities 
more widely for research, so as to bring a migration of students from 
all the Avorld, as has been done in the past by the German uni- 
versities.^ 

BRISTOL. 

The University of Bristol, the youngest of all British universities, 
only half a dozen years old, has endeavored to cover the good points 
of its five elder sisters. Like the others, though so new it is a growth 
of years. The Bristol grammar school, chartered in 1532, and later 
numerous foundations of divergent type within the city and the 
western counties furnish a broad preparatory school basis for a uni- 
versity. Within the circle are famous public schools like Clifton, 
Cheltenham, and Marlborough. A vigorous University College 
founded in 1886, which incorporated with itself in 1893 a medical 
school was the taproot of the university. When through Govern- 
ment grants and the generosity of Bristol merchant princes the Uni- 
versity was chartered, it was able to ally with itself the Merchant 
Venturers' Technical College to serve as an engineering faculty. 
This college is one of the monuments of the generosity of the Society 
of Merchant Venturers, a body like the great city companies of 
London, and a reminder of the ancient glories of Bristol as one of 
the chief ports of commerce. The charter of the university recog- 
nizes that it is not to be merely a municipal university, but virtually 
the institution of the great west country. Provision is made for 
representation in the supreme governing body of the counties of 
Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Gloucester, Somerset, and Wilts. Indeed, 
the stretch of country from Salisbury to Truro is covered by ex 
officio members of the court. Representatives within the district 
of various denominations are also members of the court, which is 
(juite in accordance with the religious spirit of the west country. By 
the charter the university is empowered to affiliate other institutions 

1 Fisher, H. A. L., LL. D., P. B. A.; now (1917) minister of education. 

2 One diflBculty is the British requirement of not less than two years of residence for 
a degree, whatever the preparation of the candidate may have been. 



128 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

or to admit the members thereof to any of its privileges. The uni- 
versity has adopted an ordinance for the— 

Association of Institutions to supplement the teactiing of the university in 
such branches of professional or technical knowledge as it may deem tit, insti- 
tutions in which teaching of a specialized character is given, or in which 
facilities of research in specialized directions are afforded. 

Pursuant to this ordinance the Bristol Baptist College, the West- 
ern College, Bristol, and the Theological College, Salisbury, have 
been associated with the university to offer a curriculum, in part, of 
a theological character for the B. A. degree. Under the same ordi- 
nance the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, and the National 
Fruit and Cider Institute have been associated with the university. 
The latter has just been equipped as a research station for agricul- 
ture and horticulture. 

The university has provided for a "testamur in social study," 
requiring a curriculum of two years, and a "testamur in journal- 
ism," with a curriculum of three years. There is also a testamur 
course of two years for engineering apprentices. Over against these 
short courses the university offers work for honor and advanced 
degrees. It has some special funds for research and advice. It is 
leading in a departure in offering degrees for original research for 
candidates previously declared by the senate to be qualified for such 
research, the research being accepted in lieu of the pursuance of a 
curriculum of study. The candidates have to submit a satisfactory 
dissertation in the subject concerned, and they may be examined in 
the subjects of the dissertations. The university has the advantage 
of new buildings and modern laboratories.^ The chemical labora- 
tory is one of the best examples and has even been held up as a 
model for German laboratories to follow by visiting German profes- 
sors. The structure is of steel concrete and stone, so designed that 
nearly all the internal walls may be altered or removed. It is con- 
structed upon the unit system, so that it may be extended by wings 
or the addition of another story. The professors' private rooms and 
laboratories are centrally situated, and supervision is aided by the 
introduction of glass windows in the wall between the rooms. Pri- 
vate experimental rooms off the laboratories are similarly provided. 
Evidently one of the points of specialization in Bristol is to be 
chemistry. 

The University of Bristol is passing through the struggles of 
youth and has the promise of youth. It will be specially near to the 
younger universities in America. Lord Haldane, at his installation 
as chancellor of the university, said : 



1 In 1915 it is announced that $200,000 has been added to a previous benefaction of 
$900,000 for buildings, given by one family. 



THE NEW OK PROVINCIAL UNIVEKSITIES. 129 

The awakeuing has come to the old uuiversities late. They are now doing 
very fine work, but they ought to have beeu able to develop it much sooner. 

* * * If the new English uuiversities cau keep their level high, they may 
be able to develop a certain advantage over the older English universities. 

* * * It is to the production by the civic university of the quality of alert- 
ness in the average as well as in the exceptional student that I look with 
hope for the future. * * * i can see no limit to what may be the develop- 
ment of the civic university within the next hundred years. I look to its 
becoming the dominant and shaping power in our system of national education.^ 

1 Haldane, Viscount, " The Civic University," reprint, 1913, pp. 15, 16, 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 ^9 



Chapter V. 

INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGES.^ 
Exeter, Nottingham, Reading, Southampton. 



The meaning of the term " college " is still so indefinite and with- 
out legal definition in England that it is desirable to use an adjective 
Avith it. Other Avise it may stand for any kind of a corporation of 
colleagues in business as Avell as in education. PriA^ate schools for 
girls or boys much affect the term. It has a standard meaning for 
preparatory and older "public schools" like Winchester and Eton. 
The ancient colleges in Oxford and Cambridge have given the Avorld 
its highest meaning, hence the adoption of the name " university col- 
lege " by modern institutions having a curriculum preparing for 
university degrees.^ The first of these colleges, outside Oxford and 
Cambridge, but A\athout their tutorial and residential features, A\'as 
University College, London, incorporated under this name in 1830.* 
It has been the model for most of its successors. " University col- 
lege " has come to have a more sharply defined meaning and to be a 
standard college since the Government began to give grants in aid 
for universities and university colleges.* 

The objects of these institutions in general are to supply higher 
literary, scientific, and technical education qualifying for degrees 
at any university in the United Kingdom. They also give prelimi- 
nary legal, medical, and engineering courses, and special instruction 
in commercial, industrial, or art subjects of interest to the locality. 
They maintain courses for teachers of elementary and of secondary 
schools. For their degree courses they haA^e Avhat might be called 
a modern curriculum Avith a Avide range of subjects. For admission 
they require the passing of the matriculation examination of the 
University of London or its equivalent. They also furnish some 
facilities for research and preparation for advanced degrees. They 
do some extension Avork chiefly by popular lectures in the vicinage. 
The college proper. Avith its full-time day students, has also part- 
time and evening students in short courses. Not being able to give 

» See Tables 9 and 10. 

*Cf. Chs. I, "Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 26; II, "Scotch Universities," p. 54. 

s Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London," pp. 67, 72-76. 

* Cf. Ch. XII, " State Aid and Visitation," p. 190. 

130 



INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGES. 131 

degrees, it gives diplomas of associateship in the college, and cer- 
tificates for the completion of the shorter courses. The colleges, like 
the newer universities, are growths from private foundations, aided 
by local and State appropriations. For example. Hartley College, 
Southampton, M^as founded in 1850, but was not able to meet the 
requirements of the board of education and to become a recognized 
university college until 1902. 

The colleges have a common plan of government. The supreme 
governing body of considerable size is the court of governors, except 
in the case of Nottingham, a mixed body of representatives of the 
many interests from which the colleges sprung. In Nottingham the 
court of governors consists only of the president, the vice presidents, 
and the mayor, aldermen, and citizens of the city of Nottingham, 
acting by the city council. The second and executive governing 
body, consisting of a small number of persons, is the council. The 
third body, dealing with purely academic matters, is called an 
academic board or senate.^ 

The four independent university colleges in England are the 
Koyal Albert Memorial University College, Exeter (at present not 
meeting the financial requirements of the board of education) ; the 
Nottingham University College; the University College, Reading; 
and the Hartley University College, Southampton. In 1913 an 
appeal for subscriptions toward the endowment of a proposed uni- 
versity college for Sussex was issued. Not less than $250,000 would 
be required for an endowment fund. It was hoped that the town 
council of the Brighton Technical College would join in the scheme 
and thus would supply modern and well-equipped buildings which 
would answer for some years to come. It was also hoped that the 
agricultural college at Uckfield might be included. If this fifth uni- 
versity college were to be established as a university center for south- 
east England, it would complete geographically a distribution of 
institutions convenient of access for university study throughout all 
England. The royal commission on university education in London 
anticipated the rounding out of the new university and university- 
college movement in some such Avay, in the meantime empowering 
the University of London to recognize public educational institu- 
tions within its extended area as schools of the university.^ 

The ideal is involved of university colleges of high enough stand- 
ards to become constituent colleges in universities of the highest 
grade. Present experience proves " that it is impossible to conduct 
an efficient university college, including teaching both for day and 
evening students in the faculties of arts, science, and engineering, 

1 Cf. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159. 
•Final Report of the Commissioners, 1913 (Cd. 6717), pp. 168, 175. 



132 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

unless an income of $100,000 a year is assured.-' It is pointed out 
that the annual cost Avould much exceed this figure in an ideal uni- 
versity college, organizing the groups of departments devoted to 
university work separately from those doing work of a lower kind. 

The following points, among others emphasized by the board of 
education in recognizing courses in university institutions, Avill com- 
plete the general idea of a standard university college.^ The board 
takes into account the circumstances and characteristics differentiat- 
ing the work and function of the university institution from other in- 
stitiltions not of university rank. The board puts into the forefront 
the standing and efficiency of the teaching staff and the extent to 
which both the staff' and advanced students are active in research. 
The board lays weight upon a high standard of admission. Not only 
must the matriculation examination have been passed, but the entrant 
should have been in attendance at a secondary school for at least 
4 years subsequent to the age of 12 and be over 17 at the time of his 
admission. To safeguard the university character of the instruc- 
tion the — 

grauts of the board are not available in respect of courses in preparation for 
a matriculation examination, nor in respect of courses in religious subjects; 
nor will they ordinarily be available in aid of a university institution which gives 
day instruction of a lower standard than that of diploma courses. A diploma 
course is one of not less tlian two years' duration, fitted for students educated 
in secondary schools up to the age of 17 at least. 

Ordinarily a university institution has a department for the 
training of teachers for elementary and secondary schools. The 
board recognizes a four years' course, of which the first three years 
are devoted mainly to study in preparation for a degree and the 
fourth to professional training. 

Despite the new and numerous separate local training colleges, this 
encouragement by State grants in aid of departments in connection 
with university colleges for the training even of elementary teachers 
is significant. We have confirmation of the wisdom of the recent 
development of teachers' colleges in American universities and of 
departments of education with possible State subsidies in American 
colleges.- 

The study of the English universit}^ college supports the vigorous 
efforts in the United States during the last decade to standardize 
the college. The tendency in the United States to develop a college 
into a university and to multiply universities might Avell be checked 
by the conservatism of the English in these matters. Their famous 
" public schools," which come the nearest to our older type of Amer- 
ican colleges, resist any thought of expansion into university col- 

1 " Board of Education; Statement of Grants Available, etc." (Cd. 6794), 1913. passim. 
2Cf. Chs. IV, "The New or rrovinclal Universities," p. 124 ; XIV, "Applied S':ience 
and Professional Education," pp. 210-212. 



INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGES. 133 

leges, though they may add a "modern side." There is a strong 
feeling that the 15 universities and university colleges at present 
existing in England, giving one institution to each three millions of 
inhabitants, is enough. Severe tests, at least, will be applied to any 
new claimant to the title of " university." 

The University College, Reading, is a case in hand. It has an- 
nounced that it expects to become a university and will welcome the 
application of the highest standards for admission to the sisterhood, 
and willingly prolongs its period of preparation. It is a university 
in the making. " Indeed, it is claimed that a university is rising in 
Reading such as England has not seen before." ^ It proposes to be 
the one modern English university with a residential and tutorial 
system at half the expense of Oxford. Outsiders say in pleasantry, 
" Reading is becoming a cheap Oxford." 

It repeats the story of gradual grow^th and amalgamation of vari- 
ous enterprises. The germ was the art classes inaugurated in 1860 
in connection with the science and art department of the nation, one 
of the fruits of the exposition of 1851. In 1885 Oxford opened uni- 
versity extension lectures in Reading. These were so successful that, 
with the substantial encouragement of Christ Church, Oxford, by 
1893 we have the university extension college, Reading, the schools 
of science and art being departments of the college. In 1893 a de- 
partment of agriculture was initiated. In 1895 the British Dairy 
Farmers' Association agreed to move to Reading the Dairy In- 
stitute and to associate it with the college. In 1902 a department of 
horticulture Avas organized. In the same year, upon the favorable 
report of the commissioners of the Treasury, the college was recom- 
mended for the receipt of Treasury grants as doing work of uni- 
versity college rank, and therefore the title was changed to "Uni- 
versity College." By 1909 a college committee began to investigate 
the question of the development of the college into a university. 
A deputation visited centers of agricultural education and research 
in Canada and the United States and reported in 1911.- In that year 
the college decided to apply at an early date for a charter as an 
independent university. 

The character of the proposed university was delineated in a 
summary paragraph : "A university moderate in size and exercising 
the power of selection and rejection in regard to its students; a 
university self-governing and well organized ; a university providing 
education at a moderate cost; a university distinguished by resi- 

1 University College, Reading. Twenty-First Anniversary, Michaelmas Day, 1913, p. 7. 

* "Agricultural Education, in America and in England. Report of a Deputation 
Appointed by the Council of University College, Reading, to Visit Selected Centers of 
Agricultural Education and Research in Canada and in the United States." (Read- 
ing, 1910.) 



134 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

dential halls, care of the individual student, and exceptional facilities 
for agricultural instruction and research." ^ 

The affirmation that " the only sure basis for a university is en- 
dowment '' Avas sustained by the announcement of the gift of an en- 
downment fund of $1,000,000. 

Preparatory to becoming a university the teaching staff of the 
college has changed its organization from a series of departments 
into three faculties of letters, science, and agriculture. During the 
four years since 1911 the college has patiently, through committees, 
^studied the preliminary questions relating to the proposed university 
policies in constitution, curriculum, buildings, and finance, but it has 
not yet applied for a charter. Such is the patience of the British in 
the preparations for a university and their recognition of the great 
difference between a college and a university. 

A deeper motive impelling a university college to attempt its trans- 
formation into a university is the reservation to the university alone 
of the power to confer degrees. The university college is limited by 
the syllabus of studies and examinations set by an external body for 
an external degree. Even if it is affiliated, three years' work gains 
exemption from but one j^ear of residence in the university. Every 
university requires not less than two years of residence for its degree. 
One is led to understand the feeling in the statement from Reading: 

A college which is preparing to be a university can not fail to respond to the 
idea of freedom and responsibility. It wishes to be a university just because it 
wishes to gain freedom for its teaching. A university college is an institution 
doing university work without university independence * * *_ -\yg i-esemble 
a body of private tutors doing piecework under the direction of external au- 
thority * * *. The spring of educational vigor is freedom ; and without 
freedom the best university work is impossible. Sooner or later a self-respecting 
body of teachers of university standing will insist upon having it.^ 

Fortunately the independent American college with the power to 
confer its own degrees has had no occasion to make Reading's plea 
for freedom. On the other hand, it is without Reading's excuse for 
expanding into a university. Reading vindicates the great ])lace the 
independent strong American college has to fill with its modernized 
curriculum and expanded activities. 

The other new universities are " great-town " universities in indus- 
trial centers. Reading urges the need of a university of the new 
type in a comparatively small town, with space for lawns and gar- 
dens, hostels, and athletic grounds. The advocates of Reading claim 
that "a new university is not necessarily urban; and the university 
is to stand in relation to the population of half a dozen coimties as 

» " University College Reading," supra, pp. 16-18. Cf. Ch. VII, "Agricultural Colleges 
and Schools." 

8 "The Reading University College Review," Mar., 1913, p. 95. 



INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGES. 135 

well as to a town of 80,000 people." It has long been conceded that 
the ideal site for a college is in the country. In the dispute between 
the advantages of rural and urban universities, colored b}' the inter- 
ests of the disputants, Reading takes the broad view that both types 
of universities are needed. 

Reading, as a semirural university, hopes to become a leader of a 
new order of universities in Great Britain by having a rounded-out 
faculty of agriculture, coordinate with the faculties of arts and of 
science, and Avith the instruction given in the centralized institution 
and an adjacent farm. They are giving special attention to the 
problem of university agricultural education. The deputation from 
the college which visited Canada and the United States in 1910 to 
gain hints upon this subject were greatly impressed by the example 
of Cornell and Wisconsin Universities.^ It may be said broadly that 
they find a model in these institutions, and the}^ confirm the policy of 
concentration in one university of all faculties, including that of 
agriculture. 

> " The Times Educational Supplement," Nov. 3, 1914. 



Chapter VI. 
TECHNICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.* 



The use of the term " college '■ for a technical or agricultural 
institution parallel in rank with a university college is gaining 
ground despite the continued loose use of the name. The title 
" Provincial technical colleges " is prefixed to a list of above 80 of 
of these institutions in the United Kingdom, though but 17 of them 
lay claim to the name, and not more that half of the 17 deserve the 
name.^ Some well deserving it do not use it. It is interchanged with 
" school " and " institute," which, as a rule, are of lower grade. 
The increasing influence of these ''provincial technical colleges" 
and their congeners in London, the Imperial College of Science and 
the Polytechnics, upon the universities is approximating that of the 
'' great public schools." The too little noticed movement from which 
they sprang, antedating that in Germany and the German influence 
in England and America, follows hard upon the beginning of the 
age of modern invention and science at the close of the eighteenth 
century, for which the inventions of Watt and Whitney prepared 
the way. 

John Anderson, professor of natural philosophy in the University 
of Glasgow, bequeathed his property in 1795 to found Anderson's 
University. The father of the new movement was Dr. George 
Birkbeck, between 1799 and 1804 the professor of natural philosophy 
and chemistry in the Andersonian institution, which is now em- 
bodied in the Royal Technical College, Glasgow. In 1800 Dr. Birk- 
beck began popular lectures to mechanics, out of which originated 
the Mechanics' Institution in 1823. By that year Dr. Birkbeck, with 
the encouragement of Lord Brougham, one of the movers for form- 
ing University College, London, established the London Mechanics' 
Institute, now known as Birkbeck College. In the meantime, in 
1821, in Edinburgh, " the School of Arts was opened for the better 
education of the mechanics of Edinburgh in such branches of physi- 
cal science as are of practical application in their several trades." 
The origin of the school is traced to an accidental conversation be- 
tween a fellow of the Royal Society and a watchmaker upon the 

1 See Tables 11 and 12. - Whitakei's Almanac, 1915. 

136 



TECHNICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 137 

lack of oppuituiiity foriyoung men taking up the latter's trade to secure 
teaching in mathematics owing to the conflict of Avorking hours with 
school hours. AVith the exception of Dr. Birkbeck's chiss conducted 
incidentally in connection with Anderson's University in Glasgow, 
the Edinburgh School of Arts claims to be the — 

first instutitiou in Great Britain to provide evening instruction of a practical 
kind for artisans, and to be the first institution in Great Britain which was 
founded for the express purpose of giving education in the principles of science 
to the industrial classes. ^ 

From this school has risen the present Heriot-Watt College. 

The Mechanics' Institute movement took a deep hold of Man- 
chester with the founding of an institution there in 1824. It was a 
line example of these institutions, which were rapidly established 
throughout the Kingdom and were especially successful in manufac- 
turing districts, particularly in Lancashire and Yorkshire. These 
institutes were pioneers in promoting popular lectures and industrial 
and fine art exhibitions, and in a measure supplied the deficiency in 
opportunity for elementary and secondary education. By the help 
of the City and Guilds of London Institute, in 1883, the Manchester 
institution developed into the Manchester Technical School, ex- 
tended in 1886 to include a junior technical school. The latter " was 
the first serious attempt made in this country to provide, for boys 
between 13 and 15 years of age, a department for manual training on 
the lines of the American manual training schools." - 

The distribution of nearly $4,000,000 a year out of the " Whisky 
money" (act 1890) by the Government for the promotion of techni- 
cal instruction throughout the country resulted in a new development 
of mechanics and similar institutions, and in Manchester in the trans- 
formation of the technical school into the Municipal School of Tech- 
nology. The city has sought to make the school one of the best 
in the world, and has profited by committees of inquiry sent to the 
Continent and the United States Finallj^, by the cooperation of the 
school with the University of Manchester in forming a faculty of 
technology such a stage of development was attained that the reports 
of the board of education in 1912 for the first time included the school 
of technology among the university institutions of the country. Thus 
we have the well-known quartette of British university institutions 
which are primarily concerned with technology — the Royal Tech- 
nical College, Glasgow ; the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh ; the 
Manchester Municipal School of Technology ; and the Imperial 
College of Science and Technology, London.'' The first three repre- 

1 " Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, calendar," 1913-14, p. 14. 

a " Prospectus of University Courses in the Municipal School of Technology, Man- 
chester," 191o-14, p. 6. 

' Garnett, Prln. J. C. Maxwell, "An inaugural address delivered to the students in 
the School of Technology, Manchester, 1912," pp. 11, 13. 



138 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

sent the fullest outcome of the Mechanics' Institute movement The 
last, as we have seen,^ that of the great exposition of 1851, a move- 
ment strengthened by German competition and influence. The de- 
velopment of these representative technological colleges and their 
recent association with universities would seem to make an exception 
to the dictum that all great educational movements come from above. 
This upward movement, including the pressure of the numerous 
technical schools of lower grade demanding recognition of their 
preparation of students for the universities, has opened or extended 
technological curricula in every British university. On the other 
hand, the technical colleges of university standing and the technical 
schools that might be ranged as secondary schools both carry a 
great amount of work, and with a majority of their students in the 
lower grades. The number of pupils and the amount of work below 
university level fill the eye of the casual observer to the neglect of 
higher technical education. 

The upward development of the Mechanics' Institute movement 
issues in the technical colleges, and in the prominence of technology 
in the universities. 

One discovers in unabated strength the spread of the original in- 
stitute idea in a no less valuable way, first in Birkbeck College, and 
then in the numerous polytechnics and evening classes of which it 
was a precursor.^ Primarily the polytechnics Avere intended to train 
the industrial classes at small expense, and to produce skilled crafts- 
men or artisans, and not to prepare students for the universities. 
The rapid growth of polytechnics and the success of technical even- 
ing classes, throughout the country, are no less conspicuous than 
the development of higher technological education. The foreign 
observer, impressed by the achievements in technological education 
in Germany, has been apt to overlook what has been accomplished 
in Great Britain and the promise in the alliance of technological 
faculties and schools with univei-sities.^ 

1 Of. p. 79, passim. 

* Cf. Ch. II, "Scotch Universities," p. 58, footnote on Dundee Technical College, 

•Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education." 



Chapter VII. 

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.* 



There is some reason for thinking that the tardy evohition of 
agricultural education in Great Britain has been educationally a 
gain. The subject has been taken up since agriculture has been 
recognized as the application of many sciences and not merely the 
teaching of the craft of farm work. The spread for a generation 
of the study of the sciences and the victories of science have pre- 
pared the Avay for the immediate admission of agriculture to the 
rank of a univereity discipline. It profits by many crude experi- 
ments in agricultural education made earlier and in America. It is 
classified as an extension of technical and professional education. - 
It is fitted in to the general educational system and not organized 
separately in the elementary or university grade of instruction. 
There is little or no attempt to infuse it into the elementary schools, 
unci there is no thought of segregating it from the universities. On 
the contrary, the scheme is to ally it with the universities.^ Agri- 
cultural colleges or schools are set up as technical schools, the 
colleges in a general way correlative with the older technical colleges, 
and the lower schools with polytechnic institutes. 

It may be said without offense that America has not much to learn 
in agricultural education from Great Britain.* Some hints, however, 
may be gained, especially in view of recent movements, since agricul- 
tural education was transferred from the board of agriculture in 
Scotland to the board of education, and, curiously enough, the proc- 
ess reversed in England by its transfer from the board of education 
to the board of agriculture and fisheries. 

Historically, Scotland has the priority over England in this field. 
Though Sir Humphrey Davy lectured in London on the application 
of chemistry to agriculture, and published the first well-known Eng- 
lish work on agricultural chemistry at the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century, a chair of agriculture was established in the Univer- 
sity of Edinburgh in 1790, and two years later Sir William Fordyce, 
M. D., bequeathed to Mareschal College, of Aberdeen, $5,000, to 

1 See Tables 11 and 12. 

2 Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 205, passim, 
s Cf. Chs. II, " Scotch Universities " ; XIII, " Coordination of Institrations." 
*Cf. p. 183. 

139 



140 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

found a lectureship in chemistry, natural history, and agriculture. 
The first lecturer on this foundation was appointed in 1840. About 
this date a widespread interest in agricultural science, under the 
influence of Liebig's writings on chemistry and agriculture, and the 
rise of the industry in artificial fertilizers, brought a revival in 
agricultural education in Europe which reached America by the 
next decade. There the movement persisted, speedih^ recognized in 
the sixties by the Federal Government through the Morrill Act. 
Thereafter it went forward by leaps and bounds. In England, the 
Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, and the earliest of the 
world's agricultural research stations at Rothamsted, privately 
founded and supported by Mr. Lawes, afterAvards Sir John Lawes, 
are the notable monuments of the period.^ 

The movement languished in Great Britain without national recog- 
nition and aid. It had to w^ait for a series of parliamentary acts 
looking toward the development of a national system of education.- 
Not until 1885 Avas the first school for higher agricultural education 
organized in Britain. This was the Edinburgh School of Agricul- 
ture. In 1886 the University of Edinburgh became the first British 
institution to institute a bachelor-of -science degree in agriculture. 

In 1886 the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, now 
the Royal Technical College, instituted an agricultural department. 
In 1899 this was amalgamated with the Scottish Dairy Institute, 
Kilmarnock, and set off, under a separate board of governors with 
representatives of the technical college, as the West of Scotland 
Agricultural College. 

In 1900-1901 the Edinburgh school, supported by the southeast 
counties, became the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of 
Agriculture. The University of Aberdeen developed about the 
Fordyce lectureship an agricultural department and instituted a de- 
gree in agriculture. The Scotch education department, having taken 
over the educational work formerly carried on by the Scotch board 
of agriculture, secured the cooperation of all the counties north of 
the areas organized under the Edinburgh and Glasgow colleges in 
support of a college centered in Aberdeen, namely the North of Scot- 
land College of Agriculture, founded in 1904. Scotland therefore 
has now its own national system of agricultural education. The 
country is divided into three provinces, each of which has as its 
center a college of agriculture, at the seat of a university, with which 
it is associated, and through which degrees are conferred. In addi- 

1 Hendrick, James, first Strathcona-Fordyce professor of agricuUure, University of 
Aberdeen, " Inaugural Address. The Progress of Agricultural Education in Scotland," 
1912, passim. 

* Acts like that of 1889 organizing the board of agriculture, the excise and customs 
act ("beer or whisky money"), 1890, the appointment of the royal commission on Scot- 
tish universities, 1889, the development and road improvement funds act, 1909. etc. 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 141 

tioii to the central class work done in the university or in the college 
of agriculture, and the training of teachers of agriculture, there are 
various kinds of extension work through all the counties. This work 
consists of field experiments carried on by the colleae with the aid 
of advisory committees and farmers, school and demonstration gar- 
dens used by the college staff of county organizers as demonstration 
centers for teachers, lectures, demonstrations, sj^stematic courses of 
extension instruction, and visiting for advice with individual farm- 
ers. The Scotch higher agricultural education rejoices in an organi- 
zation which reaches every part of the country. It is now studying 
how to develop further a graded, coordinated system crowned by 
experimental stations or institutes for research. The ideal is not 
that of a big college of agriculture with an extensive curriculum for 
a general education. They hold that only a comparatively limited 
number realW need higher agricultural education. Prof. Hendrick 
says : 

It is the province of tlie central classes of the agricultural colleges to train 
those who are to be teachers and experts in agricultural science, those who 
are to be the leaders and captains in agricultural industry in its many rami- 
fications, and those who are to have the control and management of the land.' 

For those who do not require these higher courses, shorter and 
simpler courses are supplied, chiefly in some form of college ex- 
tension. He holds true to the thought of a college of agriculture 
as a strictly technical and professional institution, analogous to a 
medical or engineering college. Like every college, it should train 
brains and character, but it supplies this training chiefly through 
those sciences which bear on agriculture. Neither is it a prime 
aim of the college to teach the practice "of agriculture. The prac- 
tice is best learned by Avork on a real farm, for which no model or 
school farm can well be substituted. So strongly are the British 
colleges opposed to the popular misapprehension that the colleges 
exist to make farmers by their instruction that most of them insist 
upon at least a year's work upon a farm as a condition of admission. 
They are there not to make but to teach farmers what can not 
be learned in practice. The mission of the college in practice is 
in its extension work, by demonstration of improved methods on 
demonstration farms or in experiment stations. 

In England and Wales the board of agriculture aided by the 
development commission funds has laid down a scheme for the co- 
ordination of the work of agricultural education largely along the 
lines of the Scotch plan but upon a vastly larger scale. ^ 

^ Hendrick, supra, p. 17. 

^Bd. of Agric. and Fisheries and Bd. of Education. Sixth Rep. of the Rural Educ. 
Conf. "Coordination of Agricultural Education, 1912" (Cd. 6273), pp. 3, 4, 8, 11. Cf. 
Departmental Committee on Agric. Educ. in England and Wales. Rep. (Cd. 4206) ; Evi- 
dence (Cd. 4207), 1908; Rep. Bd. of Agric. and Fisheries on the Distrilnitiou of Grants 
for Agric. Educ. and Research in 1908-9, 1909-10 (Cd. .5388), 1910. 



142 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

At the beginning of 1912 the first step toward coordination was 
taken by the board of education in transferring the responsibility 
for farm institutes as well as for the agricultural work of uni- 
versities and colleges to the board of agriculture for the purposes 
of the development fund.^ The scheme divides England and Wales 
into 12 educational provinces, 11 of which are already in operation. 
Each province has an agricultural college or a department of agri- 
culture of a university or university college as its educational center. 
The province consisting of a group of counties is the unit. In 
each of the provinces is established an advisory council composed 
of representatives of the university or college, of the local edu- 
cation authorities, and of the board of agriculture, linking together 
the different institutions and bodies concerned. The board also 
intrusts the general supervision of the live-stock improvement 
schemes to the advisory councils.^ 

In Commissioner Hall's ^ outline of the scheme on the educational 
side, he places research at the top in the ten or dozen research 
institutes, generally attached to a university, and each with a sub- 
ject allotted to it. Their results are to be communicated to the farmers 
tlirougli the colleges. The colleges give the long courses of instruc- 
tion suitable for future land owners, large farmers, land agents, 
teachers, and other officials. Farm institutes are being set up for 
small farmers and their sons. Demonstrations and advice are 
brought to their doors by itinerant instructors and organizers. 

Between the farm institute and the primary school Mr. Hall 
found a notable deficiency in rural education. He would fill it by 
the rural continuation school for the boy between the ages of 14 and 
18. Below the continuation school, in the elementary school, Mr. 
Hall felt agricultural education had little place, though nature 
study was a step in the right direction. " The less the schoolmaster 
meddled with agriculture the better." This coincides Avith the 
Scotch experiment of some years ago, when a large number of rural 
teachers with a certain amount of training in the elements of agri- 
cultural science started many agricultural classes in their schools. 
The effect was disappointing or worse, leading to hostility toward 
or contempt for agricultural education, according to Prof. Hen- 
drick.* On the other hand he commends the incoming continuation 
classes conducted by the county staff of the agricultural colleges. 

1 Memorandum of revised arrangements between the board of agriculture and fisheries 
and the board of education in regard to agricultural education in England and Wales. 
Cf. Memorandum of arrangements between the boards in 1909 (Cd. 4886). 

» Bd. of Agric. and Fisheries An. Rep. on the Distribution of Grants for Agric. Educ. 
and Research (Cd. 7179), p. X. 

* Hall, A. D., Commissioner of the Development Commission. Paper before the Teach- 
ers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland. The Times, Jan. 7, 1914. 

* Hendrick, supra, pp. 12, 16. 



AGRICULTUEAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 143 

The scheme of the board of agriculture under research includes two 
minor proposals, namely, the award of research scholarships of 
which the main object is to provide trained men for the research 
institutes, and the provision to assist special pieces of research work 
(uitside the scope of the research institutes.^ 

This complete scheme, still in its formative period, for agricultural 
education in England and Wales, while a native growth adapted 
to the peculiar needs of the country, reflects the influence of the 
study of continental and American agricultural systems of educa- 
tion. It is strongly confirmatory of the main features of Federal 
Government aid and inspection, cooperating with State and local 
control. 

The use made by the board of agriculture and fisheries of organized 
bodies to give official advice and to aid in coordinating all interests, 
raises the query, might not something more be done in a similar way 
by our Federal Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of Education, 
and our State educational authorities. 

The board of agriculture has constituted an agricultural education 
conference of 44 members, of whom 6 are nominated by the board, 
and the others are representatives of the provincial councils, of the 
universities, of university and agricultural colleges, and of national 
agricultural societies, to discuss and to advise the board upon ques- 
tions connected with agricultural education. - 

The scheme includes advisory councils for agricultural education 
in each of the 12 areas or provinces. These advisory councils, estab- 
lished in 1912-13, consist of representatives of each county council in 
the area of the central university or college and of the board of agri- 
culture. The functions of an advisory council are to consider the 
needs of the area as a whole and to advise the local education authori- 
ties thereon, in order to coordinate the work of agricultural education 
in the counties and the work of the collegiate centers and to advise 
the board on the state of agricultural education in the area.^ Might 

1 Fourth Report of the Development Commissioners, 1913-14 (441), pp. 7, 8. The re- 
search institutes and the subjects assigned to them at present are as follows : («) Plant 
Physiology. — Imperial College of Science and Technology, (b) Plant Pathology. — Royal 
Botanic Gardens, Kew. (c) Plant Breeding. — Cambridge University, (d) Fruit Grow- 
ing. — The University of Bristol (with which has been associated the National Fruit and 
Cider Institute at Long Ashton), and a subsidiary station in Kent in connection with 
the Southeastern Agricultural College, (e) Plant Nutrition and Soil Problems. — Roth- 
amsted. (f) Animal Nutrition, — Cambridge University and Leeds, by cooperative 
scheme, (g) Animal Pathology. — The Royal Veterinary College and the veterinary 
laboratory of the board of agriculture and fisheries. (/») Dairy Investigation. — Univer- 
sity College, Reading, (i) Agricultural Zoology. — The Universities of Manchester and 
Birmingham — tbe former taking economic entomology, and the hatter helminthology. 
(j) Economics of Agriculture. — The University of Oxford. 

2Bd. of Agric. and Fisheries Ann. Rept. of the Bduc Branch, 1913-14 (Cd. 7450), 
p. 139. 

' Bd. of agriculture and flshwies memorandum as to the constitution of the advisory 
councils, etc. (Cd. 7118), 1913. 



144 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

not something analogous to these advisory councils be found service- 
able to State and Nation in the United States ? 

The annual report of the education branch of the board of agricul- 
ture and fisheries for the year 1913-14 shoAvs some 500 persons en- 
gaged in teaching agriculture or investigating agricultural questions 
in England and Wales. Grants amounting to $95,000 Avere paid to 20 
colleges and other institutions.^ The number of students at these 
institutions in 1912-13 Avas 1,839, of whom 570 were in short courses. 
These figures are indeed small, compared with corresponding figures 
in the United States. One must remember the very recent national 
organization of higher agricultural education, in the island, and the 
predominance of commerce and manufactures, alid be encouraged by 
the soundness and promise of the plans proposed. There are yet sev- 
eral items which may have profitable lessons for us. 

Superintending inspectors of the education branch of the board 
visit the institutions receiving grants and make full reports upon 
them. Might not the Department of Agriculture and the Department 
of the Interior, through the Bureau of Education, well have a more 
regular inspection of the institutions receiving moneys from the 
United States Government ? The board makes grants for the provi- 
sion of technical advice for farmers and the investigation of local 
problems through a special advisory staff at selected colleges. Might 
not the American colleges well give more attention to this feature ? 

The board last year tried an educational experiment in the form 
of a temporary residential farm school. A month's training and 
lectures were given to 20 selected lads between the ages of 16 and 
21, in a hired house with a village hall for a classroom. This makes 
an inexpensive and movable educational feast with the benefits of 
residential school life accessible to the farm boy who could not afford 
to attend the short courses at the college. In addition to research 
institutes, the board from year to year makes special research grants 
to individuals in aid of the investigation of specific problems. The 
English habit of recognizing individuals outside of institutions and 
associating them with the institutions deserves notice amidst the 
tendency to intense institutionalism in America. 

The specialization of institutions recommended to the board by 
the rural education conference - is a point to be pressed home on the 
American agricultural colleges. Every institution should give spe- 
cial attention to the particular branch of agriculture, e. g., dairying, 

^Ann. Kept, supra (Cd. 7450). The institutions were: Vnicersities and university 
colleges — Aberystwith, Bangor, Cambridge, Leeds, Manchester, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Oxford, Reading. Agricultural colleges — Cirencester, Holmes Chapel, Kingston, New- 
port, Swanley, Uckfleld, Wye. Special institutions — British Dairy Institute, Reading; 
Harris Institute, Preston ; National Fruit and Cider Institute. Long Ashton ; Royal Hor- 
ticultural Society's School, Wisley ; Royal Veterinary College, London. 

3Bd. of Agric. and Fisheries and Bd. of Educ. Fifth Rep. of the Rural Educ. Conf. 
Courses in Agric. Colleges (Cd. 6151), 1912, pp. 6-8. 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 145 

horticulture, forestry, chiefly practiced in the district. Moreover, 
it should be recognized that there should be agricultural colleges 
of different types ministering to the class of students in their con- 
stituency. An English example is the University of Cambridge 
department of agriculture. Prof. Wood testified there is — 

a great difference between the Cambridge school and a residential agi'icultural 
college ■■' * *. Intending farmers and land agents formed only a small 
proportion, say one-tenth of the total number of students attending the school 
* * * Broadly speaking, the school is attended by two classes of students; 
(1) Future landowners who came to Cambridge to finish their education and 
took advantage of the existence of a school of agriculture to attend the lectures 
provided there; and (2) men who had taken the natural sciences tripos and 
then decided to study for Part 11 of the diploma in agriculture.* 

Quite a different type of agricultural college is represented by the 
agricultural department in Leeds. Prof. Seton says all branches of 
the work are provided for by the university, and the staff' not only 
are concerned in the in-university instruction, but also in the instruc- 
tion given in the count3^ At the university there are three courses 
of study — one for the degree of B. Sc. (Agriculture), one for the 
national diploma in agriculture, and a general course designed with- 
out any reference to the requirements of an examining body. Out- 
side the university, county lectures are given. Training courses in 
the subjects of experimental plant physiology and horticulture have 
been conducted for the benefit of teachers introducing the subject 
of gardening in the elementary and other schools. At the university 
farm there are experiments and demonstrations for university stu- 
dents and parties of farmers. There are experiments with crops 
on demonstration plats at selected centers in the county. Members 
of the staff give technical advice to farmers. There is provision for 
the testing of seeds and milk. The college is cooperating with the 
farm institute and improvement of live-stock schemes of the board of 
agriculture. The university has been recognized by the board as 
an institution for research in animal nutrition, as well as the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge. 

Leeds and the University College, Reading (which has converted 
the department of agriculture into a faculty), represent what might 
be known as the all-round type of agricultural college, not unlike 
the common American pattern. The more common type of English 
agricultural college represented by the Royal Agricultural College, 
Cirencester, and the college at Wye, might be described as intensive 
colleges with three-year courses to prepare students for estate man- 
agement and forestry or for farming on a large scale or in the 
colonies. They also have short courses. A third type, represented 
by the Harper Adams Agricultural College, is intended primarily 

1 Supra (Cd. 6151;, p. 19. 

89687°— Bull. 16—17 10 



146 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

to educate farmers' sons and to make farmers. They have certificate 
courses of two years, diploma courses of a more advanced character, 
and short courses. Only six of the institutions aided by the board 
prepare for the degree of B. Sc. It is evident that there is room 
for at least these three types of agricultural colleges, of equal value 
in their way, and that the university college type should be at the 
seat of a universit)'. 

It is especially noteworthy that none of the agricultural colleges 
embrace any extended courses in engineering. They only take up 
farm machinery and survej^ing. So high and wide to their minds is 
the scope of agriculture that they feel compelled to concentrate 
their studies upon the sciences pertaining to it and the applica- 
tions in their field. They see the wisdom of maintaining a strictly 
technical school instead of a polytechnic. 

The latest item of interest in agricultural education, just before 
the outbreak of the war, was the holding of the International Con- 
gress of Tropical Agriculture in London (June, 1914). Attention 
was called to the need of educating Europeans to fill responsible 
positions in the Tropics. The founding of an agricultural college 
in the Tropics is advocated, to which men with the diploma of an 
agricultural college at home could proceed. Such a college should 
also become a most important center of tropical agricultural re- 
search. Ceylon and the West Indies were suggested as sites for 
the college. The opportunity for such a tropical college, at least 
for the Western Hemisphere, ought not to be lost sight of by Ameri- 
can agricultural colleges and experiment stations and the govern- 
ments, especially in the Southern States and possessions. 

One of the first fruits of the war is a realization of the necessity 
of making more of instruction in forestry.^ The almost prohibitive 
prices of wood and timber have brought home the practically com- 
plete dependence of the country on foreign supplies, despite the fact 
that with proper afforestation the nation could almost meet its own 
demands. The attention hitherto given to the Indian and colonial 
forest services, particularly in the Cambridge and Oxford schools 
of forestry, is likely to be extended to home service. The new 
buildings for forestry recently erected at Cambridge and Edinburgh, 
aided by appropriation from the development commissioners and 
a grant for a forest garden, portend further contributions. The 
diplomas in forestry at Cambridge and Oxford and the institution 
of the degree of B. Sc. in Forestry in 1906 by Edinburgh, now fol- 
lowed by Aberdeen, give promise for the future. 

The courses in forestry at Bangor, Newcastle, and Cirencester, 
like those in the schools of forestry, recognize the economic as well 

1 Cf. the Times Ed. Sup., " Schools of Forestry," July 6, 1915. 



AGEICULTUKAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 147 

MS the technical aspects of the subject. In like manner the \var has 
emphasized the importance of increasing the supplies of home-grown 
food, which redounds in favor of agricultural education. The board 
of agriculture is seeking to organize local committees to give advice 
to farmers. Local farmers are persuaded to give experimental 
courses in rural schools, e. g., milking, poultry farming, etc. Coop- 
erative societies of farmers are increasing. County education com- 
mittees assist in all these things, even to providing demonstration 
plats and training agricultural workers, including women, in the 
lighter forms of work. School kitchen gardens are being made an 
adjunct to cookerj^ classes. 

Among the points emerging worthy of American consideration are 
that the management is local ; the instruction is in the practice or art 
of agriculture, given not by schoolmasters but by actual farmers, 
and tending to create a universal interest at little expense and in 
time to increase the support of the work of the agricultural colleges. 



Chapter VIII. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES.^ 



The stor}' of the higher education of Avoinen in Great Britain is 
relatively that of the " short and simple annals of the poor," but 
illustrative of one of the greatest Victorian movements. It may 
throvs^ some light on questions in debate with reference to collegiate 
education in the United States. There are five types of institutions 
for the collegiate education of women in the Island. In the order of 
time they are, first, the independent college, using the -word "col- 
lege " as it is used in England, to cover various grades of education 
above the elementary, represented by Queen's College, London, the 
first college founded for women in Great Britain. Second, the uni- 
versity college, represented by Bedford College, London, the first 
of the present university colleges opened for women. Third, the 
university annex college, the first of which was Girton, Cambridge. 
Fourth, the college incorporated in the university, represented by 
Queen Margaret College. Glasgow, or King's College for Women, 
London. Fifth, the unrestricted coeducational institution, the first of 
which was University College. London, and represented also by the 
Scotch and new universities. 

The founding of Queen's College in 1848 marks the first stage 
in the higher education of women in Britain. The finishing schools, 
which gave the fashionahle education of girls which Charles Lamb 
called " the female garniture which passeth by the name of accom- 
plishments," could not satisfy the rising thought and activities of the 
early Victorian period. A woman was on the tlirone. It was the year 
of revolutions in Europe. Further reforms than those of the Reform 
Bill of 1832 were impending in England. The refrain Avas, " the old 
order changeth, yielding place to new." It was the time of the rich 
aftermath of the literary revolution of the beginning of the century 
in England, and of a new literary era. Tennyson was about to suc- 
ceed Wordsworth as poet laureate. "The Princess" liad just staged 
the " college woman," since then a perennial character in tragedy and 
comedy. The full advent of woman in literature was come. Eliza- 
beth Barrett Browning, Mrs. Gaskell, and the Brontes were writ- 

» See Tables 13 and 14. 
148 



WOMEN ''S COLLEGES. 149 

ing. The education of girls carried on chiefly in the home, in the 
three R's and the accomplishments, by governesses, began to call for 
a better educated governess. In 1848 the Governess's Benevolent 
Institution made arrangements with " professors of high talent and 
standing in society to open classes in all branches of female educa- 
tion." They got permission to give this branch of their work the 
name of Queen's College. The spirit of the age was brought to bear 
upon them by helpers like Charles Kingsley, one of their teachers, 
and F. D. Maurice. The latter gave the inaugural address for the 
college. "At that date even the name of ' college,' as associated with 
women, seemed to require apology." * 

It is proposed to oi)en a college in London for the education of females. The 
word " college " in this connection has to English ears a novel and ambitious 
sound. I wish we could have found a simpler one which would have described 
our object as well. * * * We are not devising a scheme to realize .some 
favorite theory, but are seeking by humble and practical methods to supply 
an acknowledged deficiency. 

In the characteristic English way, though it was an epoch of agi- 
tation and theories, the college, like its successors, had a practical 
and not a theoretical origin. 

Cheltenham Ladies' College, founded in 1854, is another college 
of this type. They represent the transition from instruction by gov- 
ernesses or the old-time " finishing school " to the school seeking to 
preserve the accomplishments in combination with the elements of 
a modern scholastic discipline. Incidentally they may prepare stu- 
dents for university matriculation or degree examinations. The 
word " ladies " in the title is significant of the purpose they would 
specially fulfill and the class they would serve. Candidates for 
admission have " to give references in regard to social standing." 
Cheltenham covers the work of every grade of instruction. It has 
a kindergarten for boys and girls under 8; a lower school for pupils 
from 8 to 12; a middle school for pupils from 12 to 15; an upper 
school for pupils from 15 to 18 ; university classes for those working 
for degrees of the University of London or for the Cambridge higher 
local examinations. There are also post-school classes in home 
science, mubic, and art. 

The first women's colleges were meant to be grammar and " public 
schools " for girls, corresponding to those for boys. Their continued 
success justifies them, though over 300 girls' secondary schools, and 
notably those of the girls' public day school trust, have risen since 
they were founded. They may well show that there is also a place 
in the United States for the best type of girls general and prepara- 
tory boarding school outside the public school system. 

1 Davies, Emily, LL. D., " Thoughts on Some Questions relating to Women," 1860-1908, 
with prefatory note by E. E. Constance Jones, mistress of Girton College, Cambridge, 
1910, p. 159. 



160 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SGOTLAJSID, 

Bedford College, founded in IS^iQ, onl}^ a yeai' later than Queen's, 
has been mentioned as now a representative of the university college. 
There is no evidence that at that time it was consciously preparing 
the way to open universities to women. Its aim was to offer oppor- 
tunities of higher education. From the beginning its curriculum 
included Latin, mathematics, and natural science, and from 1875 
Greek. Bedford College is a monument to the first foundress of a 
college for women in England, though for centuries women had been 
founders and benefactors of institutions for men. The generosity 
of Elizabeth Jesser Reid enabled the college to open. The aims and 
atmosphere of the school may be gathered from the name of Erasmus 
Darwin among the promoters, and of Anna Swanwick, " George 
Eliot," and Jane Martineau among the first students. George Eliot, 
then 30 years old, like others of mature age, availed herself of this 
first opportunity for higher education. It is suggested also they may 
have desired to set an example to help others to overcome the preju- 
dice of the time against a woman's going to college. 

The college, first cradled in a private residence, was housed in a 
series of residences, until, by gifts amounting to $650,000, and the 
aid of the lease of a site in Regents Park from the Crown, the event 
of 1913 in the world of woman's education was the opening of the 
commodious buildings of the college by Queen Mary. The event in 
the same Avorld in 1914 was the gift to the endowment fund of 
$525,000. In 1900 the college Avas recognized as a school of the Uni- 
versity of London. In 1913 it was recommended by the royal com- 
mission as worthy of becoming a " constituent college " of the uni- 
versity. It has been recognized as a university college by the board 
of education, and receives the largest grants from the treasury of 
any woman's institution, and also a grant from the county council. 
Its students are working for degrees "with a definite purpose and 
post in view." The college holds before them the demand for better-, 
trained women not only for teaching, but for the 80 other professions 
for women scheduled in the " English Woman's Year-Book." 

The Royal Holloway College, opened in 1886 by Queen Victoria, 
the gift of Thomas Holloway, at a total cost of $4,000,000, belongs in 
the group of independent university colleges. The founder de- 
signed " to provide education of a university character for women of 
the middle and upper-middle classes." It is recognized as a school 
of the University of London in the faculties of arts and science. It 
is intended for resident students and has complete accommodation 
for about 200 of them. In a suburban location, 19 miles from Lon- 
don, and receiving no State aid, it fills a not uncommon American 
ideal for such a college. The success of the colleges of this type in 
reincarnating the medieval benefactor, in attaining university stand- 



151 

ards, and in retaining the best features of the corporate or ancient 
collegiate life, as well as the work of their graduates, vindicates their 
existence among the other types of the separate women's college.^ 

The university annex type of college stands at the end of a long 
and tortuous path of agitation and effort. The bold idea of open- 
ing the university to women was not entertained at first by the 
originators of the two groups of colleges we have described. The 
question was first raised in 1856 by a brave woman who applied for 
admission to the examination of the University of London, then 
only an examining body. It was decided that it was not legally 
possible to admit a woman under the charter. In 1862 a proposal 
to obtain a modification of the charter of the university to make it 
possible to admit women was rejected by the casting vote of the chan- 
cellor. It was followed by the formation of a committee for obtain- 
ing the admission of women to university examinations. In 1864 the 
report of the royal schools inquiry commission referred with ap- 
proval to the proposal for the establishment of a new college "de- 
signed to hold, in relation to girls' schools and home teaching, a 
position analogous to that occupied by the universities towards the 
public schools for boys." ^ 

The committee first succeeded in securing a private or unofficial 
examination of girls simultaneously with that for boys by the Cam- 
bridge local examinations syndicate in 1863. At the same time the 
committee corresponded with the secretary of the Oxford local ex- 
amination delegacy, but were discouraged from making any formal 
application.^ By 1866 the local examinations of Cambridge, Edin- 
burgh, and Durham were opened to girls. 

Under powers given in the supplemental charter of 1867 to the University 
of London, women were not rendered admissible to the ordinary examination, 
but two forms of certificate were offered to female students, the one of general 
and the other of higher proficiency.* 

The scheme was not successful. Associations in various parts of 
the country for improving the education of women were active in 
seeking the admission of women to the universities as candidates for 
degrees. The University of London in 1878 received a supplemental 
charter empowering it to make every degree, honor, and prize of the 
university accessible to women on equal terms with those to men. It 



1 The London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women belongs in this 
group. Founded in 1874, it deserves mention as the first medical school for women. It 
provides for the full training of women for the medical profession and is recogniaed as 
a school of the University of London. In 1912-13 the number of students was 183. 
The only other semiindependent medical school for women Is in Edinburgh. Queen Mar- 
garet College, Glasgow, continues a segregated college incorporated in the University of 
Glasgow. 

2 Davies, Emily, supra, p. 90. 
•Da vies, supra, p. 164. 

♦ University of London Calendar, 1913-14, p. 23. 



152 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

was thus the first academical body in the United Kingdom to admit 
women as candidates for degrees. And so it came about that Uni- 
versity College of the University of London was the first institution 
of university rank to open its doors to women upon the same terms 
as to men with the exception of the departments of anatomy and 
engineering. 

The siege of the women against the old universities proceeded by 
slow approaches, eventually gaining the annex colleges at Cambridge 
and Oxford.^ The first move, bej^ond securing the privilege of the 
Cambridge local examinations, was the opening of a college of in- 
struction in a hired house at Hitchin, 25 miles from Cambridge. In 
1873 this college, now known as Girton, was removed to the suburbs 
of Cambridge, at w'hat was considered a proper distance from the 
men's colleges. 

The second move made upon Cambridge was a memorial in 1868 
to the university asking for advanced examinations for women, which 
were instituted in 1869. Lectures having these examinations in view 
were started in 1870, and in the next year a residence was opened 
for the -women taking these lectures. Thus arose in 1875 Newnham 
Hall, now" the college. At present Newnham College has four halls, 
each with its own head, dining hall, and common rooms. These 
units, susceptible of addition, have a common college hall, library, 
and grounds of 10^ acres. Girton does not have a series of halls 
and has one great dining hall and a chapel. Its grounds cover about 
33 acres. Otherwise to-day there is no substantial difference in the 
colleges, though different in their origin. Girton was the outcome 
of the zeal of a group of earnest women who desired to have a col- 
lege for women like those for men in the ancient universities. Newn- 
ham sprang up within a university circle, at first only desirous to 
secure the privileges of university lectures and examinations for 
women resident in Cambridge. Though the atmosphere of the col- 
leges at the beginning was somewhat different, due to their different 
origins, the difference is slight to-day. Both the institutions are in- 
dependent bodies and without share in the government of the uni- 
versity. They are places "at which women reside and are taught 
while passing through the university course." Their students are 
admitted to university examinations, and Avith the consent of the pro- 
fessors and lecturers in the university to their classes and labora- 
tories ; but they are not eligible for degrees, as this would make them 
members of the university with the right to participate in its gov- 
ernment. At present the colleges are not agitating to secure degrees. 
The record of their students, who must be " honor students " to secure 
the certificates, have made the certificates almost equivalent to a 

» Cf., l^niversity of London Calendar, 1913-14, p. 37. 



women's colleges. 153 

degree. There is also a strong feeling that the university before long 
will find a way to give the degrees. 

Oxford moved more slowly in recognizing the demands for the 
higher education of women, though now officially she has gone some- 
what further than Cambridge, in that in 1910 she constituted a dele- 
gacy for women students. Through this delegacy the university 
confers the privileges of "recognized societies" upon women's col- 
leges, and confers upon students on the books of recognized societies 
a privileged status as ""registered women students." No student re- 
siding in Oxford may enter her name for any university examina- 
tion in arts or music unless it is on the register. 

The university has recognized four residential colleges — Lady Mar- 
garet Hall, founded in 1878; Somerville College, founded in 1879; 
St. Hugh's College, founded in 1886; St. Hilda's Hall, founded in 
1893 ; in 1901 associated with St. Hilda's College, Cheltenham, under 
the title of St. Hilda's Incorporated College. These are residential 
colleges, independent of the universit}^ Each has its own governing 
body. Like the colleges of the university, they fix their own condi- 
tions of admission and make their rules for internal discipline, which 
are in close general agreement. With the exception of Somerville, 
which is undenominational, " they are conducted on the principles 
of the Church of England." Each of the colleges has a number of 
scholarships, and Somerville a research fellowship. The colleges 
endeavor to maintain high standards and emphasize reading for 
honors. 

The university also recognizes the Society of Oxford Home-Stu- 
dents, founded in 1879, under the auspices of the Association for 
Promoting the Education of Women in Oxford. It is comparable 
with the body of noncollegiate students for those not members of the 
colleges. It is under the care of a principal and committee for home 
students appointed by the delegacy for women students. It has no 
buildings of its own except a rented common room. It has approved 
St. Frideswide as a hostel for Roman Catholic home students. 

To summarize, the women's annex colleges are peculiar to Oxford 
and Cambridge. They conform to the model of the men's residential 
tutorial self-governing colleges. They do not, however, belong to the 
university or share in its government. Their students are not at pres- 
ent admitted to membership of the university or to its degrees. They 
may enter for examinations qualifying for certain degrees and di- 
plomas. If successful, they receive certificates in lieu of degrees. 
Though each college has its own staff of instruction, upon which are 
also lecturers from the university staff, and itg oAvn lecture rooms and 
library, the students also attend university and intercollegiate lec- 
tures with the men. They use the university libraries and laborato- 
ries. In these particulars there is absolute coeducation. The sepa- 



154 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, 

rate college buildings and grounds and undergraduate societies eflfect 
segregation for social and athletic purposes. 

The " recognized societies " are in general agreement with refer- 
ence to social regulations for " registered women students." Some 
of these are in effect as f oIIoavs : ^ The women students are not ex- 
pected to enter into conversation with undergraduates attending the 
same lectures. They are not to go into colleges or lodging houses 
except with a chaperone approved by their principal. They may 
attend public entertainments and athletic events under conditions 
approved by their principal. They are not permitted to take long 
country walks or bicycle rides or to boat alone. They may receive 
calls from gentlemen who are known to their parents, but they must 
not walk, boat, bicycle, or go to cafes with gentlemen without an ap- 
proved chaperone. They must consult the principal before accepting 
invitations for the evening or for luncheon, picnic, or for boating 
parties. Invitations to dances may not be accepted. These regula- 
tions are not resented, being in harmony with the long-established 
Oxford and Cambridge theory that the college stands in loco paren- 
tis. The prejudice on the part of the men students against the pres- 
ence of women in the university has passed. Each sex goes its own 
way, taking very little notice of the other. 

Of women's colleges incorporated in a university, Queen Margaret 
College. Glasgow, founded in 1883, is a capital example. In 1886 
certain professors in the university, each making his own arrange- 
ments, began to give lectures to women, some of which were held in 
the university and some outside. In 1877 an association for the 
higher education of women was formed in Glasgow, and courses of 
lectures were organized by it, and were given in the university by 
permission of the senate. This association was incorporated in 1883 
under the name of Queen Margaret College, the senate of the univer- 
sity appointing two members of the council of the college. The col- 
lege, with its buildings, grounds, and endowments, was transferred to 
the university in 1892 on condition that these should be devoted to 
the establishment and maintenance of university classes for women 
exclusively. By this arrangement the teachers in Queen Margaret 
College were appointed by the university court and the students 
admitted as matriculated students of the university. Queen Mar- 
garet College is now the women's department of the University of 
Glasgow^, the college as a corporation having been dissolved. The 
tradition of the college is kept by the " Students Union Association," 
composed of former students, to which the University is indebted 
for Queen Margaret Hall, Queen Margaret college settlement, and 
Queen Margaret college students' union. All women students are 

» Cf. regulations for men in Cli. XVIII, " Student Life,"' pp. 240-241. 



WQMEN S COLLEGES. 165 

now required to matriculate at the college and to advise with the 
" mistress " of the college. A part of the instruction in arts and in 
the Queen Margaret medical college is given in the college hall and 
a part in the university. 

The second instance of a college for women incorporated iai the 
university, " King's College for Women," London, reversing the 
order of development in Queen Margaret College, began as a wom- 
en's department of King's College in 1881, and was incorporated as 
a college in the University of London in 1910. In 1913 the university 
senate constituted a delegacy, separate from the King's College 
delegacy, for the government of King's College for Women. A new 
era has just been inaugurated for the college by the interest shown 
in the department of home science and economics and by gifts re- 
ceived for the endowment of a hostel to be called Queen Mary's 
Hostel, and the building and equipment of laboratories. The college 
confers a diploma in home science and economics for a one-year post- 
graduate course and a certificate for a three-year course. The college 
has a department of theology, a facultj^ of arts, and a faculty of 
science and home science. The principal officer and head of the 
executive work of the college is the warden. This does not apply to 
the department of theology, whose head is dean of the faculty in 
King's College for Men, though the warden has the superintendence 
of her students. The college has its own staff, of whom nearly half 
are members of the staff of King's College for Men. By a step just 
taken, the second and third year students in science attend lectures 
and laboratory courses at King's College for Men. This looks in the 
direction of coeducation in the form in which it appears in Univer- 
city College, London, and in the Scotch and new universities. It 
might be a step toward the fulfillment of the recommendation of the 
royal commission. The commission, in the interest of economy, 
wished to amalgamate the two King's Colleges and to exalt into a 
department of the whole university, under the name of household 
and social science, the college's department of home science and 
economics.^ 

The year 1880 marks the time of the turn of the tide in the higher 
education of women and its sweep henceforth toward unrestricted 
coeducation in universities. In that year the Victoria University, 
Manchester, was founded, the first university in Great Britain and 
Ireland in its foundation charter explicitly providing that — 

all the degrees and courses of study of the university shall be open to women, 
* * * and women shall be eligible for any office in the university and for 
membership of any of its constituent bodies. 

In 1892 the commissioners appointed under the universities (Scot- 
land) act of 1889 empowered each of the Scotch universities to admit 

1 Cf. p. 156. 



156 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

women to graduation upon the same conditions as those for men. 
Men and women might be taught together in the same class or in 
separate classes. The four universities, having long been under 
the influence of associations for the higher education of women, and 
having met them as far as the law would allow, availed themselves 
of their new powers without delay.^ 

After a struggle of three-score years, coeducation is firmly estab- 
lished in the field of higher education. This is the more remarkable 
since coeducation is little practiced and little tolerated in secondary 
education. Among the five types of coeducational institutions there 
is a distinct tendency for the last type evolved to prevail. The 
independent and isolated colleges are not multiplying, and, as with 
every other kind of school, all existing colleges tend to seek an 
affiliation or alliance with a university. 

The success of coeducation has banished fears and silenced objec- 
tions to the admission of women to university privileges. There is 
a steadily increasing number of young women attending the universi- 
ties, due in part to the influence of the board of education in recogniz- 
ing degrees and facilitating the arrangement of practically joint 
courses of study between the teachers' training colleges and the 
universities. The old-fashioned governess is passing, and the woman 
with college training and athletics is taking her place. Girls do not 
go to college because it is fashionable, but because they desire that 
kind of education. The increased activities of women in public 
affairs and in philanthropy are drafting a larger number of those 
who wish to qualif}' for such work to the colleges. A late movement 
in women's education is indicated by the avowed purpose to develop 
the department of home science and economics in King's College for 
Women, London, into a university department of household and 
social science - in order to train ladies who have no thought of bread- 
winning for the administration of the modern home on scientific 
principles, and for their mission as wives and mothers and their par- 
ticipation in the life of the community. The effeminization of the 
universities is not apprehended. There is a predominance of men, 
and masculine traditions are firmly established in student societies 
and sports. The women also are occupied with their separate so- 
cieties, and in accordance with the habits of the English woman's 
out-of-door life have their own sports. 

The presence of women has not affected the curriculum. The pre- 
established widened range of studies and freedom in choice of them 

* In 1874 Edinburgh instituted a certificate for women ; 1876, St. Andrews the title 
of L. Ii. A., cf. p. 56. Glasgow opened mixed classes in the university, while continuing 
separate classes in Queen Margaret College. The six new English universities, the 
Welsh, Irish, and in general the universities throughout the Empire, have adopted the 
policy of unrestricted coeducation. 

•Cf. p. 155. 



women's colleges. 157 

prevented tliis incidence of the advent of women. The segregation of 
the social and athletic life of the women in the university-annex col- 
leges has resulted in genuine coeducation in all matters scholastic. 
One might say there is literallj'' coeducation as distinguished from 
asexual education. The college incorporated in the university and the 
unrestricted coeducational institution are as rapidly as possible secur- 
ing the benefits pertaining to the annex college, while retaining the 
advantages of equality, freedom, and inexpensiveness which they 
have. They are agreed in the necessity of having a woman and 
scholar as the head of the women's student bocly,^ They are insisting 
upon approved lodgings and have accepted the principle of having 
residential halls or hostels, wliich they are erecting as rapidly as 
they can secure the funds. 

The future of the higher education of women is assured. Women's 
colleges and university departments recently have received relative 
to their age and size the largest donations given to university educa- 
tion.- The new stage in the higher education of women will be safe- 
guarded and promoted by the number of university women gradu- 
ates and their organizations. The association of university women 
teachers, in 1913, numbering 2,717 members, is not only placing 
teachers in the Islands but also abroad, including the United States. 
Perforce it is influencing the standardizing of women's institutions 
throughout the English-speaking world by making a list of those 
whose graduates it Avill admit to membership. The federation of 
university women is raising funds for fellowships to be held by 
women graduates who have proved their capacity for research. Uni- 
versitj' w-omen now have greatly increased opportunity for research 
work and Government appointments. The annual reports of the 
central bureau for the employment of women carry the names of 
women having bachelor's degrees with honors in a variety of employ- 
ments. 

"Women are not excluded from theological degrees. In 1915 the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, in addition to conferring diplomas on 
students who have been successful in his examination in theology, 
conferred upon two women licenses to teach theology. 

The most significant event, to those who believe in the participa- 
tion in government by women, was the admission, at the end of 1913, 
of " female graduates of Durham University to membership of con- 
vocation on the same terms and conditions as men." Inasmuch as 



1 Tbe title " dean of women " Is not used, but warden, mistress, senior tutor, or 
principal. 

8Cf. Bedford College, London. $1,175,000; King's College for Women, London, Home 
Science and Economics, $700,000 ; the erection of woman's buildings or hostels at almost 
every Scotch and new university ; Somerville fund for new buildings ; the payment of 
the debt of Glrton, $120,000 ; halls of residence, Reading. 



158 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Durham has been grouped with Oxford and Cambridge, and the 
refusal of the last two universities to admit women to jtheir B. A. 
degree has rested primarily upon that degree opening the w^ay for 
women to sit in convocation and the government of the university, 
this triumph of woman at Durliam may portend much.^ 

1 The approximate number of women students attending universities and university 
colleges in 1912-13 was as follows : Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, 932 ; London 
^matriculated students), 1,442; the six new English aniversities, 1,741; English uni- 
versity colleges, 566 ; total English, 4,681 ; total Scotch, 1,882 ; total English and 
Scotch, 6,563. 



PART II.- TOPICAL STUDIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 



Chapter IX. 

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF UNIVERSITIES. 

There are four distinct species of university organization in Eng- 
land and Scotland. They are those of Oxford and Cambridge, of 
the Scotch universities, of London, and of the new universities. 
These species are clearly descended from a common medieval genus. 
In individual institutions of the same species there are varieties, and 
variations in terminology for practically the same thing. There 
are four parts in common in the organization of all the four species. 
The headship consists of a chancellor, a vice chancellor or principal, 
and other administrative officers.^ Second is a small executive body 
Avith which the headship is associated, known at Oxford as the heb- 
domadal council, at Cambridge the council of the senate, in Scotland 
as the university court, in London as the senate containing three 
councils, in the new universities as the council. Third, comes the 
academic body called in Oxford the congregation, in Cambridge the 
electoral roll, in Scotland the senatus academicus, in London the 
academic council as a part of the senate, in the new universities the 
senate. The fourth body is an organization of the graduates, at 
Oxford the convocation, at Cambridge the senate, at London and 
the new universities the convocation, in Scotland the general council. 
In the Scotch universities a fifth and a. sixth part were related to 
the first four under the universities (Scotland) act of 1889. In view 
of parliamentary appropriations the Scottish universities committee 
of the Privy Council was constituted, to whom reports are made. 
The students' representative council was also recognized, which, 
through the rector and by advice conceiTiing his assessor, virtually 
has two representatives on the court.^ 

In the new universities, in view of their aid from the State, munici- 
palities, public bodies, and donors, a numerically large body known 
as the court of governors, and nominally the supreme governing body, 
became the fifth part of the organization. 

« Cf. Ch. X, " University Officers," pp. 170, passim ; 175 passim ; 180. 

* Cf. Chs. X, " University Officers," pp. 174-175 ; XYIU, " Student Life," pp. 246-247. 

159 



160 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Oxford, Cambridge, and the Scotch universities have largely kept 
unobsciired, despite the occasional intervention of the State, the 
original model of a university, namely, a self-governing guild of 
masters and scholars possessing many rights and privileges from 
church and state, a corporation making its own plans, without let or 
hindrance, in the pursuit of learning and the management of its 
finances. Oxford and Cambridge have become practically an estate 
of the realm, with complete autonomy, excepting that statutes have 
to receive the approval of the King in council. So strong are the 
traditions of the necessity of autonomy in universities, in the inter- 
ests of political and intellectual freedom, that the plan of govern- 
ment of the new universities is designed to forefend against direct 
municipal control.^ 

It may be sufficient for our studies to notice the latest changes 
and tendencies in council, congregation, and convocation, using the 
Oxford nomenclature for the essentially same parts of organization 
in the different universities. 

The council at Oxford, the supreme governing organ of the uni- 
versity, succeeded in 1854 the old hebdomadal board, composed 
entirely of heads of houses and the proctors, which had existed from 
1631.- The council consists of the chancellor, vice chancellor, the 
ex-vice chancellor, 2 proctors, and 18 members elected by congre- 
gation for six years in three orders of six each. The orders are com- 
posed of heads of houses or halls, professors, and members of convo- 
cation of five years standing. From these 18, half retire (but are 
reeligible) at the end of three years. 

The constitution of the council at Cambridge is on the same plan 
with the three orders. The functions of the councils have been to 
manage both the educational and business sides of the universities. 
The initiative of legislative proposals has been limited to them. 
Organized agitation for reform of the council took shape in 1909 
and 1910 in both the universities. As the reform in the sixties of 
the hebdomadal board at Oxford and of the "caput" at Cambridge 
was intended to liberate from the autocracy of the heads of houses 
and to strengthen the professoriate, the feeling of the present agita- 
tors has been that the existing government is still too oligarchical 
and not sufficiently representative of the wide range of studies or 
an efficient organization financially. 

The efforts of the reformers centered upon the abolition of .the 
three existing orders, throwing open the entire 18 places to election 
by congregation or senate.' The main reasons adduced were that 

» Of. Ch. XII, " State Aid and Visitation." 

*Curzon, "Principles and Methods of University Reform," supra, p. 22, passim. 

3 Curaon, " Principles and Methods, etc.," supra, pp. 22-27 ; Curzon, " Report of the 
Hebdomadal Council," p. Ix, 8 ; " Oxford University Gazette," May 7, 1913, pp. 735-736 ; 
TiUyard, supra, pp. 343-344. 



UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 161 

persons fitted for the work and available for any section of the uni- 
versity rather than classes should be chosen. It was believed that a 
fair proportion of heads of houses and of professors with qualifica- 
tions for the work of the council would be elected. 

The Oxford reformers have succeeded in extending the power to 
initiate legislation outside the council.^ In the direction of efficiency 
the reformers have succeeded in securing a reconstitution of the 
faculties and boards of faculties and in the establishment of a gen- 
eral board of the faculties, relieving the hebdomadal council of the 
greater part of the business connected with curricula and examina- 
tions and imifying the policy and administration of the several 
boards of faculties and the university and college teaching.- 

A far-reaching reform was the establishment of a finance board 
which presented in November, 1913, to the council its first " Consoli- 
dated Statement of the Receipts and Expenditures of the University 
and Its Departments " and a " Summary of Receipts and Payments 
of Colleges" for 1912.^ This was the first fruits of a coordinated 
financial policy in the university and the colleges and of the aim 
to secure something like a uniformity of accounting. The board is 
intended to unite the financial with the executive and administra- 
tive functions of government and to prepare an annual budget for 
the council. 

Corresponding to the Oxford and Cambridge councils is the uni- 
versity court in the Scotch universities. The court, ordinarily num- 
bering 14, consists of the rector and his assessor, the principal of 
the university, the provost of the city and an assessor nominated 
by him conjointly with the magistrates and town council, an as- 
sessor nominated by the chancellor, four assessors elected by the 
general council, and four assessors elected by the senatus academicus, 
and a possible four representatives of affiliated colleges, should there 
be such.* This court of 14 or 15 members, first established by the 
universities act of 1858, has power to review all the decisions of 
the senate, to appoint and dismiss the teaching staff, and to alter 
or revoke rules and ordinances, with the written consent of the 
chancellor and with the approval of the King in council. It is most 
suggestive that after 30 years of experience under the reform act of 
1858 the financial administration, which had been left with the senate 
under the tradition of centuries, was transferred from it by the act 
of 1889 to the court.° The court was made a body corporate, with 

1 " Oxford University Gazette," May 7, 1913, p. 734. 

2 " Oxford University Gazette,"' June 4, 1913, p. 919 ; Mar. 5, 1913, " Of the Boards 
of Studies," p. 550. " Statuta Vniversitatis Oxoniensis " Oxonii E. Typoyrapheo Clar- 
endoniano, 1913 pp. 128-146. 

3 " Oxford University Gazette," Feb. 4, 1914, pp. 424-429. 

* Universities (Scotland) act, 1889 (52 and 53 Vict, ch. 55), 

"Cf. p. 164. 

89687°— Bull. 16—17 11 



162 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

perpetual succession and all university property vested in it. It 
was empowered to administer the whole revenue of the university. 

In the University of London the senate is most nearly correspond- 
ent to the council of Oxford and Cambridge and the court in the 
Scotch universities. The statutes declare that " the senate shall be the 
supreme governing and executive body and shall have the entire 
management of and superintendence over the affairs, concerns, and 
property of the university."^ One of the most striking recom- 
mendations of the royal commission on imiversity education in Lon- 
don is to reduce the present cumbersome senate of 56 members to 
15 and to relieve it of certain legislative functions by instituting a 
" court " in order to increase the efficiency of the senate as the execu- 
tive body of the university. It is to have " the management and ad- 
ministration of the whole revenue and property of the university and 
(except as otherwise provided) the conduct of all the affairs of the 
university.^ 

The councils in the six new English universities are the executive 
bodies, varying in number from 24 to 38. In general they consist 
of the chancellor, prochancellors, vice chancellor, and the treasurer, 
and of persons appointed by the court, by the senate, by the munici- 
pality, county councils, and other interested local public bodies. 
They have full financial powers, powers of appointment usually after 
report from the senate, powers of initiative in legislation by the 
court, and to review the instruction and teaching of the university. 

It will be helpful to add the practice in respect to the council in 
the newer universities in the Empire. In Australia the organization 
of these universities seems to have been based on the old University 
of London : 

The governing body — called sometimes a senate and in other places a coun- 
cil — consisted of a number of members (usually 20 to 23) elected by a body 
variously called convocation, senate, or council, and consisting in the main of 
former graduates of three years' standing.' 

In view of the support from the State and of the need of closer 
relationship with it, in several of the universities the governor in 
council appoints a certain proportion of the members of the gov- 
erning body : 

In Canadian universities there is generally a sharp division of administrative 
control and educational direction. The former, which includes the responsi- 
bility for finance and for staff appointments, is usually inti'usted to a board of 

»Cf. Ch. Ill, "University of London," p. 70, 

' Final Report, supra, p. 191. The proposed senate would consist of 15 members, the 
chancellor, the vice chancellor, the chairman of convocation, and 12 other persons, 5 
appointed by the Crown, 2 by the " court," 2 members of the academic council by that 
council, 2 by the London County council. 1 by the corporation of the city of London. 

• Bd. of Educ, Spec. Repts. on Educ. Subjects, vol. 25, " Universities in the Over-Seas 
Dominions," p. 3. 



UNIVEESITY ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTHATION. 163 

governors (or of trustees in the case of denominational universities), who in 
the academic sense are laymen.* 

The latest published study of the organization of universities and 
colleges is the report of the university commission in the Union of 
South Africa. The report says : " The university will consist of a 
chancellor, a vice chancellor, a council, a senate, and a convocation." ^ 
The plan contemplates a Federal university, with a representative of 
both the government and council of the university and the council of 
each college. Of each college council the principal of the college is 
to be an ex officio member, and there are to be representative members 
of any municipality or public body making a contribution of not less 
than $5,000 a year and of university graduates. The university coun- 
cil is to be a body of 24 members, of which the principals of the three 
constituent colleges and a representative nominated by the council 
of each college will constitute 6 members. The superintendent gen- 
eral of education and His Majesty's astronomer will be ex officio 
members, 6 members will be elected by convocation, and 9 nominated 
by the Crown. The presiding officer is to be the chancellor or vice 
chancellor. The powers of the council give full financial control, 
subject to the consent of the Government, in matters involving in- 
creased expenditures from public funds. The council will admit 
institutions, recognize teachers, be a court of appeal from the aca- 
demic senate, from which it will receive an annual report, and will 
itself make an annual report to the minister of education. 

The general conclusions to be drawn from the studies of the coun- 
cils are confirmatory of vesting the Government and complete finan- 
cial management in a board, after the American fashion known as 
the " president and corporation of trustees " or regents or curators.^ 
These should be small deliberative bodies. The British practice 
would make the head of the university an ex officio member, and 
some other administrative officers like deans or treasurers. Uni- 
formly their practice would have representative members from the 
academic senate and from the body of graduates, and sometimes a 
representative of the undergraduates. Representation is also pro- 
vided for public bodies who are contributors to the support of the 
institution or who are educationally interested. In the case of State 
or municipal-aided institutions, both have representation. Care is 
taken that there shall be proportionate representation, and that 
there shall not be a preponderance from the faculties or the State 
or municipality. There is an increasing number of laymen in edu- 
cation of various professions and business interests. They are 

» Bd. of Educ, Spec. Repts. on Educ. Subjects, vol. 25, " Universities in the Over-Seas 
Dominions," p. 5. 

2 Union of South Africa. Rept. of the Univ. Commission, Cape Town, Government 
Printers, 1914, p. 121, passim. 

• Of. Ch. X, " University Officers," pp. 176 and 180. 



164 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

selected on account of their ability and public spirit, and in no case 
receive any financial compensation. 

In the present order of treatment of university organization the 
third body is the academic and legislative body still known at Oxford 
as the congregation. In Paris, the pattern influencing Oxford and 
Cambridge, the congregation, was the " regents," i. e., the masters of 
arts actually engaged in teaching, as distinguished from the non- 
regent masters represented in convocation. Between the hebdomadal 
board at Oxford and the caput at Cambridge, on the one hand, and 
the largely nonresident convocation or senate, on the other, by the 
middle of the nineteenth century congregation, or the correspondent 
electoral roll of Cambridge, had largely lost its powers. The reform 
acts, intending to restore power to the actual teachers, instituted a 
congregation or electoral roll consisting of all masters of arts domi- 
ciled within what were the approximate residential boundaries of 
the two university cities. One design of this action was to include 
in congregation the large number of private tutors or coaches at 
that time engaged in university teaching. The unlooked-for result 
was the substitution of a residential or geographical for a teaching 
qualification. The number of M. A.'s settling in the university 
cities upon their retirement from their various occupations, all 
having votes in the congregation, defeated an intended purpose of 
the acts to make the legislative assembly of the university one of 
teachers and administrators. 

In 1913 at Oxford the important reform was effected by which 
residence is no longer a qualification for membership in congregation, 
and in the future it will consist of the teaching and administrative 
element in the university and colleges.^ It will not subserve our 
purposes to treat of the organizations subordinate to congregation, 
namely, the faculties, the boards of faculties, and the boards of 
studies and the general boards of the faculties, as reformed by 
statutes in 1912 and 1913.^ These statutes are steps in the unification 
of the university and the colleges and of the recognition of all actually 
engaged in teaching. They make congregation more nearly parallel 
to the " senatus academicus " of the Scotch universities, but bring 
into prominence the narrower purely professorial basis of the latter. 

In Scotland the senatus academicus consists of the principal and 
the whole professoriate, excluding assistant professors and all other 
teachers. Since the act of 1889 transferred the financial administra- 
tion to the court from the senatus, the latter is intrusted only with 
the regulation and superintendence of the teaching and discipline of 

1 Oxford University Gazette, Mar. 5, 1913, pp. 551, 552 

' Statuta, supra, 1913, Tltulus V, pp. 128-138; "Of the Constitution of the General 
Board of Faculties," pp. 142, 145 ; " Of boards of Study," p. 146. 



UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 165 

the university subject to the review of the university courts The 
faculties established by ordinance consist also of full professors only. 

The senate institutes boards of studies corresponding as nearly as 
may be to the departments of study for graduation in arts. Each 
board of studies consists of the principal, the dean of the faculty of 
arts, and such other members of the senate and lecturers as the senate 
may select. Herein is the only opportunity for teachers other than 
full professors to share officially in university administration. The 
practice is in great contrast to that of Oxford, Cambridge, London, 
and the new universities. There is an agitation in Scotland to gain a 
representation of the entire teaching staff in the administration of 
the university. In London the academic council is a standing com- 
mittee of the senate with advisory functions.^ The council consists 
of the chancellor, the vice chancellor, the chairman of convocation, 
the 16 persons appointed to the senate by the members of the re- 
spective faculties, and a member or members of the senate elected 
by the senate to make up the number to 20. It is obligatory upon the 
senate to invite and receive reports of the academic council before 
coming to any determination upon certain educational matters, like 
the admission of institutions, schools of the university, appointments 
to the teaching staff, salaries, the regulation of the courses of study 
for internal students, any matter relating to internal students, and 
the assignment of funds for buildings and equipment. The members 
of the respective faculties of the university are appointed by the 
senate and embrace others than full professors. A faculty reports 
upon any matter referred to it by the senate and upon courses of 
study, provision for teaching, and the granting of degrees. 

From members of the faculties, the senate appoints annually 
boards of study, with the aim of securing representatives of every 
subject of university study, and of giving all teachers an oppor- 
tunity of expressing their views to the senate. The senate may ap- 
point also other persons than members of the faculties on the board 
of studies. The academic council and the council for external 
students, respectively, before advising the senate with reference to 
courses of study, provisions for teaching, examinations, and the 
granting of degrees, are bound to receive reports from the board of 
study concerned. 

In the new universities, the senate consists as a rule of the vice 
chancellor and the full professors. In some cases there is provision 
for a limited number of other members, for example, in Sheffield, 
the registrar and the librarian. In general the senate, subject to 
the approval of the council, has educational control. 

» Cf. p. 161. » Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London," p. 70. 



166 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Each faculty consists of the vice chancellor, the dean of the 
faculty, the professors assigned thereto, such lecturers, assistant 
lecturers, and other teachers of the university as may be appointed 
to the faculty, and such other persons as may be appointed by the 
council, on the recommendation of the senate, provided their number 
shall at no time exceed one-third or one-fourth of the total number 
of the members of the faculty. Each faculty, subject to review by 
the senate, is responsible for courses of study and regulations as to 
degrees, diplomas, etc. At Manchester, in addition to the boards 
of faculties, there is a general board of faculties, consisting of all 
the members of the several boards, and having power to report to 
the senate on matters concerning teaching and courses of study which 
affect the university as a whole. The noticeable points in the new 
universities are that the central body is the senate, in which in effect 
the faculties are boards or standing committees, and in the faculties, 
if not in the senate, the entire teaching staff is represented. 

The fourth body, the organization of the graduates, known at 
Oxford as the convocation, and at Cambridge as the senate, is theo- 
retically the supreme legislative power in these two institutions. 
In fact it has an absolute veto power, though it is rarely used. This 
consists of the right to confirm or reject, without the power to amend, 
the statutes passed by congregation. It elects the chancellor; it 
elects the university representatives in Parliament; it confers hon- 
orary degrees. Convocation consists, in addition to the doctors of 
the university, of all masters of arts resident or nonresident, who by 
the payment of fees keep their names on the books, both of the uni- 
versity and of any college or hall. Only graduates taking the B. A. 
degree are eligible to obtain the M. A. The latter is gained simply 
by the payment of a fee of $60 to the university, in addition to such 
fee as the man's college may require. An annual fee keeps the name 
on the books. At Oxford " Out of the total number of B. As. it is 
calculated that only one-third proceed to the M. A. degree and 
become members of convocation. In other words the franchise is 
not primarily educational, but pecuniary." ^ 

From the days of Prof. Jowett various proposals have been made 
to restrict the powers of convocation. He would have shorn con- 
vocation of any power of interference in the " internal government " 
of the university or in " educational matters." One may summarize 
Lord Curzon's rehearsal of the proposals and the arguments for 
and against them.^ It is held that convocation should be retained 
as a final court of appeal lest the university should fall into the 
hands of an oligarchy of resident teachers, detached from the out- 

> Curaon, supra, p. 34. a Idem, pp. 35-41. 



UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 167 

side world, and the connection of Oxford with its old members 
and through them with the nation lost. A proposal was made and 
rejected in congi-egation in 1909 to shift the ground for an M. A. 
and consequent membership of convocation from a pecuniary to 
an intellectual basis by making the conditions for an M. A. the 
taking of honors or a prize or a diploma. Some would have con- 
fined the degree of M. A. to those who have had experience in 
teaching or in research. Against the proposal were the antici- 
pated loss to the revenues of the university in the smaller numbers 
in convocation, the temptation to lower the standards of the honor 
schools, and the depreciation of the B. A. In any case the con- 
vocation franchise would be limited to a narrow, if not a pedantic, 
restriction. 

Quite an opposite proposal was to admit to convocation all who 
had taken an Oxford degree and to reduce the fees to a nominal 
amount. In addition to the pecuniary risk of this procedure were 
the objections to the impossibility of the meeting of the thousands 
of members, to voting by proxy, and the heterogeneous and, except 
intermittently, apathetic constituencies. 

Following the analogy applied to the House of Lords was the 
proposal of some form of the suspensory veto. " It might, for 
instance, be enacted that if a statute were passed by congregation, 
by a certain majority in two successive years, it should become 
law unless it were thrown out by convocation." 

Lord Curzon closes with a statement that dealing with convo- 
cation is " a problem that can not be indefinitely postponed." This 
does not seem too strong a statement to one who has made personal 
inquiries at the two universities and among prominent graduates. 
It is a general belief that nothing less than an act of Parliament 
can eflfect a reform of convocation, and that it will come sooner 
or later. 

In Scotland since 1858 the general council is the body corre- 
spondent to convocation or senate in England.^ It consists of the 
chancellor, the members of the university court, past and present, 
the professors, and all persons after registration on whom the uni- 
versity has, after examination, conferred any degree whatsoever. 
It is enacted that no person shall be allowed to graduate at any 
of the universities of Scotland until he shall have paid a regis- 
tration fee. This fee, which is a payment for life, is only $5. It 
is the function of the council — 

to take into their consideration all questions affecting the well-being and 
prosperity of the university and to make representations from time to time 

»Cf. Scottish universities act, 1858 (21 and 22 Vict., ch. 83) ; Representation of the 
People (Scotland) Act, 1868 (31, 32 Vict., ch. 48) ; Universities Election Amendment 
(Scotland) Act, 1881 (44, 45 Vict, ch. 40). 



168 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

on such questions to the university court, who shall consider the same, and 
return to the council their deliverance thereon. 

The general councils of St. Andrews and Edinburgh jointly re- 
turn a representative to Parliament and likewise the councils of Glas- 
gow and Aberdeen. The chancellor and four of the assessors of the 
university court are elected by the council. The council is more than 
a nominal body. It has statutory half-yearly meetings, and the an- 
nual reports of the university court to the secretary for Scotland are 
laid before it. To it also are communicated all new ordinances, or 
changes of existing ordinances, which may be proposed by the uni- 
versity court. 

By 1858 the graduates of the University of London were numerous 
enough to secure their admission in the new charter as part of the 
corporate body of the university, with the right to assemble in con- 
vocation. At present the convocation consists of the chancellor, the 
vice chancellor, all graduates of three years' standing from the date 
of their first degree, or who shall have attained a degree higher than 
that of bachelor and who are upon the register of convocation, and 
all members of the three standing committees of the senate during 
their tenure of office. 

The annual fee for membership in convocation is $1.25, or a life 
composition fee of $5. The functions of convocation are to " discuss 
any matter relating to the university and declare its opinion thereon 
to the senate, to elect the chancellor, 16 representatives on the senate, 
and the university member of Parliament." The six new universi- 
ties have followed the example set in Scotland and London of having, 
with slight variations, a convocation with similar powers and func- 
tions.^ 

As a rule convocation consists, in addition to the registered gradu- 
ates paying a nominal fee for registration, of the chancellor, the vice 
chancellor, the deans of the faculties, and the teaching staff. Con- 
vocation may elect a limited number of representatives of the court 
and in some cases of the council. It is noticeable that its powers are 
limited to discussion and deliverance of opinions. This point and 
the practice of including the teaching staff of a university with its 
graduates in convocation are reinforced by the recommendation of 
the royal commission on university education in London.^ The re- 
port would continue the convocation, with its powers of declaring 
an opinion, but with an amendment making it include the teaching 
staff. 

The report would borrow from the new universities the " court of 
governors," to which we alluded as the fifth part of their organiza- 

1 At Birmingham named a " Guild of Graduates." ^ Beport, supra, p. 166. 



UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 169 

tion. The court is a device in institutions dependent upon public or 
donated funds to give contributors a voice in university government 
in addition to that of the teachers and graduates. It is a large body, 
sometimes of three or four hundred members, representative of all 
taking a substantial interest in the university. It is nominally the 
supreme governing court to which appeal may be taken. From its 
nature it can only make its constituencies heard in the general plan 
of organization and policy and be in the last resort a coordinating 
force. The report endeavors to differentiate the court, as a general 
legislative body acting upon expert advice, from a small and largely 
independent executive. The report says : 

A large heterogeneous body can not transact executive business, and for this 
purpose it would be powerless because inefficient, while the power would rest, 
as it ought to rest, with the executive body. 

The thought is that the small executive body of 15 members will 
have the control of finance, and through finance of the details of 
educational policy, but it will not act without the advice of the pro- 
fessoriate as a whole, expressed through its appointed representa- 
tives, the academic council. The report vigorously opposes the view 
that the court should be able to turn out the executive body of whose 
policy it disapproves. It reads: 

We should agree that this ought to be so if the executive body derived all its 
powers and functions from the superior body. We contemplate, however, that 
in London, as in the provincial universities, there should be a differentiation of 
function established under the statutes and based ultimately upon the obvious 
fact that administration needs continuity of purpose and control, and the expert 
judgment which long-continued and constant work in the administrative field 
alone can give. An executive committee which was liable to dismissal at any 
moment would tend to lose its initiative, and might spend the greater portion 
of its period of office in learning its business. We think the legislative con- 
trol which we propose to vest in the court, and the means it will possess of 
bringing public opinion to bear upon university policy, will effectually prevent 
friction, while it will avoid the danger of sudden reversals of policy, which are 
more fatal in educational matters than in other departments of human activity.^ 

Herein is struck the keynote between government and administra- 
tion. The secret of success of an institution lies largely in the sepa- 
ration but cooperation of these in policies w^hich must not be subject 
to revolutionary changes. Before we can make an application of 
our studies in organization and administration, we must take up the 
subject of " university officers." 

* Beport, supra, p. 49. 



Chapter X. . 

UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 



To understand the government and administration of the universi- 
ties we must consider some of the principal officers and their func- 
tions. 

In all the universities the nominal headship is vested in a chan- 
cellor. He is elected for life in Oxford and Cambridge,^ the 
Scotch universities, Manchester, and London, and, excepting Man- 
chester, by convocation, or the body of graduates corresponding to it. 
The election in Birmingham is by the court, subject to approval by 
the Crown, and in Liverpool by the court, subject to approval by the 
visitor. In the three latest universities — Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol — 
ihe election is by the court, upon nomination by the council of the 
university. The chancellor is created as far as possible by the votes 
of the whole university, in the older universities by the graduates 
and teachers, and in the newest universities, as yet without a large 
number of graduates, by the highest and most representative bodies. 

He is the highest dignitary and, theoretically, authority within 
the university, and yet a nonresident officer. Thereby hangs a tale 
told by the story of the ancient title. Harking back even of the 
early university usage of the title, we may catch some note of it from 
the days of Alcuin and Charlemagne in the cathedral schools. After 
the Conquest, among the four principal officers of every cathedral 
church of secular canons, namely, the dean, chancellor, precentor, 
and treasurer, the chancellor became synonymous with the school- 
master.^ With the rise of universities, therefore, the bishop ap- 
pointed the head of the school, or chancellor. When the university 
was not in the cathedral town, as in the case of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, the chancellor became nonresident. As universities grew in 
influence, the chancellor became more than the chief schoolmaster, 
even the chief authority, sometimes created by the Pope. At Ox- 
ford, by the Laudian statute of 1636, the chancellor bore the aca- 
demic and civic rule of the whole university. He was to guard its 

* At Cambridge the oflBce is held for two years or for such a length of time beyond 
two years as the tacit consent of the university permits. Practically it has been 
for life. 

2 Leach, A. F., The Medieval Schools of England, Methueu, p. 58 ; cf. pp. 106, 107, 
108, 112, 113, 180. 181, 188, 189. 

170 



UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 171 

liberties and privileges, and, with consent of the university, to com- 
pose difficulties. Gradually the chancellor, at first an ecclesisatical 
officer exercising public control in the universities, not regarded as 
a member of the university, became identified with it as its head.^ 
At Cambridge he is referred to as the head of the university, to gov- 
ern it according to the statutes. 

He has power to call congregation, to admit candidates to degrees, to see that 
all officers of the university duly perform their duties, and to punish members in 
statu pupillari for disobedience to the statutes or ordinances of the university.* 

As a matter of fact, the chancellor rarely appears in Oxford and 
Cambridge and seldom takes any part in academic government, his 
powers being delegated to the vice chancellor. His advice has weight 
with the ruling body of the university. He is usually a member of 
the House of Lords, and the leader of public measures and subscrip- 
tions on behalf of the institutions. In the Scotch universities the 
chancellor is president of the general council; any change proposed 
by the university court must receive his sanction. He names an 
assessor in the university court. He confers degrees upon persons 
found qualified by the senate, and appoints a vice chancellor to confer 
degrees in his absence. In London, as " the head and chief officer," 
he is a member of the senate and of convocation and of all the boards 
and committees of the senate. He is the presiding officer of the 
senate. In the new universities the chancellor is generally character- 
ized as the " head and chief officer " and is often the president of the 
court, council, and convocation, with power to confer degrees and to 
hear appeals. 

When the strength of the universities made them largely independ- 
ent of the church, they made their own chancellor, and the executive 
power within the university was chiefly placed by the nonresident 
official in the hands of his deputy, the vice chancellor. The chancel- 
lorship became, in the main, honorary and was considered by some as 
merely a figurehead. 

If the office be only titular and ornamental, one queries how to 
account for the embodiment of it in the constitution of the most 
modern universities throughout the British Empire.^ It is more than 
a survival due to British veneration of tradition. It may be in part 
an adaptation to English established rank or class distinctions. Re- 
cently the office has been made increasingly active and useful in 
relating the universities to the public, and possibly in influencing the 
policies within the institution. This may have been due to the per- 
sonality of those filling the office. The expansions and the develop- 
ment of policies in institutions in which recent chancellors were 

1 Owen, Sir Isambard, University of Bristol address, " The Significance of a Univer- 
sity," 1909, pp. 17, 21. 
•Calendar, 1915, p. 52. 
• Cf. Ch. XII, " state Aid and Visitation," p. 193. 



172 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

known to be active come to mind. One may mention the university 
reforms at Oxford under Lord Curzon, the actual and prospective 
reforms at London and Glasgow under Lord Rosebery, the expansion 
of St. Andrews under Lord Balfour, of Burleigh, and of Aberdeen 
under the late Lord Strathcona, the founding of Birmingham under 
the late Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, the upbuilding of Leeds under the 
Duke of Devonshire, and of Sheffield under the Duke of Norfolk, 
and the intellectual impetus given to Edinburgh under the Hon. A. J. 
Balfour, and to Manchester under Lord Morley. 

Bristol, the latest of the universities, deems itself fortmiate in hav- 
ing Lord Haldane as its chancellor. It claims, somewhat — 

After the fashion of the original model, to have restored public control through 
the chancellor's authority, so to speak, constitutionalized. He exercises his 
power through a representatively constituted council and court of governors/ 

This theory is being put into practice in solving the difficulties 
attendant upon a new university, through Lord Haldane's personal 
influence, his fitness as a student of education, and his experience in 
educational measures. 

The vice chancellor in England, the principal in Scotland, is the 
resident working head of the university. At Oxford he is the real 
deputy of the chancellor, who nominates him annually from among 
the heads of houses in the order of their election as head, usually for 
four successive years. At Cambridge the power of election, lost at 
Oxford under Laud in 1636, is retained by the senate. It elects an- 
nually, subject to one reelection, from heads of the colleges upon the 
nomination of the council. In suggestive contrast is the appoint- 
ment of the principal in the Scotch universities for life by the Crown 
or curators,^ and of the vice chancellor in the new universities for life 
or an indeterminate term by the court or council. 

The duties of the vice chancellor at Oxford and Cambridge are 
so numerous and complex that it is not unusual for his health to 
break down, though his term of office is only two or four years. 
" There is probably, during term time, no more harder worked offi- 
cial in the United Kingdom." He is the presiding officer over the 
important educational bodies in the university. He is practically a 
member of every board and committee, educational and financial, 
in the university. He is concerned with a large number of appoint- 
ments. He is responsible for the discipline of the university.^ He 

» Owen, Sir Isambard, supra, p. 20. 

* In Edinburgh by the curators of patronage representing the university, court, and 
town council, in St. Andrews ex oflScio the principal of the United College ; in the 
Scotch universities the vice chancellor is named by the chancellor, but his only power 
is to confer degrees in the absence of the chancellor. It is the custom of the chancellor 
to appoint the principal as the vice chancellor. 

•Associated with the vice chancellor are two proctors, elected annually, who are his 
special agents in matters of discipline. It is noticeable that there are no such officers 
In the Scotch or new universities. 



TTNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 173 

is expected to be in touch with various educational bodies, par- 
ticularly the public schools, outside the university and to rep- 
resent the university on numerous public occasions. So similar are 
the duties of the vice chancellor to those of the president of an 
American university and so onerous that at both Oxford and Cam- 
bridge the suggestion has been made that some eminent man who 
should devote his entire time and abilities to university work should 
be appointed vice chancellor for life or for a long term of office. 
Indeed, the suggestion has been carried to the extent that the vice 
chancellor — 

Should be paid an adequate salary and have an official residence, and a 

proper (administrative) staff under him. So great would be the number of 

his duties that it would be advisable to give him a deputy also with an 
adequate salary.^ 

These suggestions are not seriously considered at present at Oxford 
or Cambridge, but there is a deep feeling that the executive ma- 
chinery of university government is inadequate.^ The feeling has 
issued at Oxford in the increase of the powers and salary of the 
assistant registrar,^ as well as in the organization of the board of 
finance, and at Cambridge in the efficiently organized office of the 
registrary, coming into close cooperation with the vice chancellor, the 
council, the financial board, and general board of studies. In the 
Scotch universities, London, and Birmingham, the working head of 
the university called the principal,* an officer for life, in the main 
fulfills all the functions ascribed to the vice chancellor in Oxford 
and Cambridge. He has an organized office in coordination with all 
the administrative offices similar to that of an American college 
president. 

Durham, London, and the new universities have the office of visi- 
tor. It is a revival of the power of visitation in early times asserted 
by bishops and archbishops and conceded to Kings. In Durham 
the bishop of Durham is the visitor, in the other universities the 
King or the King in council. The charters read : 

We * * * shall have the right from time to time and in such manner 
as we or they shall think fit to direct an inspection of the university, its build- 
ings, laboratories, and general equipment, and also the examinations, teaching, 
and other work done by the university. 

This seems a fair recognition of the relation of the modern uni- 
versity to the State and an acknowledgment of State aid.^ The 

* Tillyard, supra, p. 342. 

* Curaon, supra, Ch. VIII. 

s Oxford University Gazette, Oct. 29, 1913, p. 136. 

*The title is a survival of "principal regent" from the early days when each uni- 
versity teacher was a regent and carried his pupils through all the subjects of the 
curriculum. 

» Cf . Ch. XII, " state Aid and Visitation," p. 193. 



174 HIGHER EDTJCATIOIT IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

principle involved in having a visitor is explained in the constitu- 
tion of McGill University, Montreal, in which the supreme authority 
is vested in the Crown and exercised by the governor-general of 
Canada as visitor: 

This is a special and important feature of the constitution, for while it gives 
the university an imperial character and removes it at once from any merely 
local or party influence, it secures the patronage of the head of the political 
system of the country. 

In the office of rector the Scotch universities have a relic of the 
guild or university of students as contradistinguished from the 
university of masters.^ Bologna was the model. There is even an 
imitation of the division in Bologna into four nations, and of the 
headship of each nation, a procurator or proctor.^ At Bologna the 
associated groups of students from foreign nations elected the 
"rector scolarium." This director of students at first was distinct 
from the " rector scolarum " or director of studies.^ The university 
of masters at Paris handed on the Bologna precedents to England and 
Scotland. At the head of each of the four faculties in Paris was a 
dean, and of each of the four nations a proctor. Neither the entire 
university nor the separate faculties had originally a common head, 
and not until the middle of the fourteenth century did the rector, 
at first the head of the faculty of arts by whom he was elected, 
become the head of the collective university.* 

In Glasgow and Aberdeen the rector is elected by the matriculated 
students divided into four nations.^ Each nation chooses a procu- 
rator, and the rector is elected by the procurators. In case of an 
equality in the votes of the procurators, the election is determined 
by a majority of the votes of all the students voting. The rector, 
whose term of office is for three years, is the official president of the 
university court, to which he nominates also an assessor. Before he 
appoints his assessor he may confer with the students' representative 
council. In St. Andrews the rector is elected by a general poll of 
matriculated students, since there is no division of students into 
artificial nations. The election of the rector usually follows a heated 
campaign, conducted by the students on the grounds of party politics, 
and is supposed to be educative of each generation of students in the 

» Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," pp. 60-61. 

2 The proctor at Oxford and Cambridge, sharing executive authority with the vice 
chancellor, is a survival somewhat parallel to the Scotch rector. In the " Early Cam- 
bridge and College Statutes " (collected by James Heywood, London, 1855, p. 38) it 
reads, "Two masters of arts actually regent shall be elected rectors or proctors by the 
majority of the regent masters of arts." The proctors had powers to arrange lectures, 
to punish undergraduates, and, in case of neglect by the chancellor or his locum tenens, 
to convoke the regent masters. 

s Cf. p. 175 ; Ch. XVIII, " Student Life," p. 248. 

* Cf. Ency. Brit., 11th edition, article on " University." 

» Each of the three nations consists of students born in certain counties or parishes 
In Scotland, the fourth nation of students not included in any of the other nations. 



UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 175 

politics of the day. Upon occasion some person, other than a great 
political leader, prominent in the public eye, is elected, as earlier 
Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, Froude, and Dean Stanley, and now 
Andrew Carnegie, Kitchener, President Poincare, and Winston 
Churchill. The rector's office is chiefly associated with the rectorial 
address. Beyond that it is an indication of the democratic character 
of the university, and affords, together with the rector's assessor 
upon the university court, a real representation of the student mem- 
bership in the university. 

The office of dean, primarily that of the headship of a faculty, 
historically has had a twofold relation, executive and studious. 
The deans, with the rector of the university and proctors, became an 
initiative executive. On the faculty and student side, the dean was 
virtually a " rector scolarum " or director of studies. With the rise 
of the colleges in Oxford and Cambridge the functions of deans are 
found in them, and there is no university dean. Glasgow alone 
has from the beginning preserved an officer of dignity with the title 
of " dean of faculty " or " dean of faculties." Originally the func- 
tions of the office were "to exercise a superintendence over the 
studies, and, in conjunction with the masters, to judge of the quali- 
fications of applicants for degrees." Later, with the rector and the 
minister of Glasgow, he was made an examiner of accounts and an 
adviser to the principal and professors in the institution of judicial 
inquiries concerning the faculties. By the act of 1858 he was made 
a member of the university court, but was omitted from that body 
in the act of 1889. He is elected annually by the senate. In all the 
Scotch universities each faculty is presided over by a dean elected 
annually from one of their number. Among his functions is the 
presentation of candidates for degrees to the chancellor or vice 
chancellor. In London and the new universities each faculty, with 
some exceptions,^ elects its own dean for terms of from one to three 
3^ears. In a few cases the deans are ex officio members of the coun- 
cil or of the court. The functions of the deans are somewhat vari- 
ous, but they are largely formal, and connected with faculty arrange- 
ments and not with student affairs and advice. In Scotland there 
are "official advisers of studies" in different faculties. In Oxford 
and Cambridge this function is fulfilled by the college authorities 
and tutors. 

This discussion omits titular officers whose functions have become 
obsolete or would have little application in the United States.^ It is 
worthy of note that librarians, treasurers, registrars, and secretaries 
hold offices not only of dignity and influence but have membership 
in legislative and executive bodies. 

1 At Liverpool the deans are appointed by the council upon nomination of the faculties. 
*B. g., high steward, public orator, esquire bedell. 



176 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

In the field of university control certain tendencies make them- 
selves clear. Despite the diversities on paper of forms of govern- 
ment three things stand out in common. They are a headship, vested 
in a person surrounded by a group of administrative officers, a 
supreme governing body, and an educational legislature. 

There has been an increasing differentiation of the functions of the 
three, the fixing of the responsibility of each, and, at the same time, 
the interrelating of them by the principles of representative gov- 
ernment. 

Experience, on the one hand, with a mere figurehead with only 
presiding and clerical duties as at Oxford and Cambridge, and, on 
the other hand, with even a veto power as in a Scotch university, has 
strengthened the tendency to make a real, resident, responsible, and 
permanent head of an institution.^ The retention of a nonresident 
chancellor suits British political and social conditions. He may be 
useful for representative purposes outside the university and for 
advisory purposes within it. The assertion of his long dormant 
authority would be quickly resented. 

The strength of the feeling for a responsible, resident, personal 
head, with powers of leadership, is proved by the action in the recon- 
stitution of the Scotch universities, and in the constitutions of the 
new English universities and university colleges. An interesting in- 
stance of the tendency occurred upon the resignation of the vice 
chancellor at Manchester in 1913. The charter provides that the 
vice chancellor shall be appointed by the university court, after nomi- 
nation by the university council, who before reporting shall consult 
the senate. The term of office is left open to be determined by the 
university. The unusually large representation of the senate on the 
court and council, as well as the provision for consultation with the 
senate, gave that body large powers. An acting vice chancellor was 
selected and a year's time taken for deliberation upon the ideals of 
the vice chancellorship and the tenure of the office. The number 
of men in the faculties from Oxford, Cambridge, and German uni- 
versities, impressed by the annual election of the head in those 
institutions, insured debate with knowledge at first hand of limited 
fimctions and terms of office. The decision is notable, made so largely 
by the professoriate, for a permanent and experienced leadership.^ 
The recommendation of the commission on university education in 
London is a move in the same direction, merging the office of prin- 
cipal in that of the vice chancellor, and making him " a permanent 
official, with a salary, who would be the chief administrative officer 
of the university." 

* Of. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," pp. 159-163. 

• Sir Henry A. Meirs, M. A., D. S. C, F. B. S., Principal of the University of London, 
was elected vice chancellor at Manchester. 



UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 177 

In the recent choices of the heads of colleges in Oxford, Cambridge, 
and London the rule of seniority has not been followed. The powers 
of leadership of the man have been studied, and freer opportuni- 
ties for their use given. It seemed evident that the institutions gain- 
ing ground Avere those in which the personality of the heads gave 
them a leadership above that found in the letter of the law. In 
personal conferences no head intimated that he sought to grasp 
greater power, but many desired a less cumbersome administration. 
One experienced head wrote : 

I am strongly of opinion that there is need of a change with us, and that it 
would be better for our universities if the principal had the same power and 
responsibility as the presidents of American universities. 

A side light pointing in the direction of the above sentiment is 
afforded by the Australian universities, of which it is said: 

The senate liave had no representative whom they miglit consult and who 
would serve to blend the administrative with the academic view. It has ac- 
cordingly happened that unusually large power has accumulated in the liands 
of the registrar, the chief permanent officer of the senate.* 

In short, the experiment to get on without a president proves the 
need of a responsible head and exposes an institution to the discharge 
of the necessary functions of that office in an irregular way by an 
officer irresponsible in that sphere of action. The variety of prac- 
tices with reference to the headship of British universities points to 
an increasing appreciation of a resident, responsible, headship, 
vested in a person of the teaching profession, with executive ability, 
with a prolonged tenure of office, and a representative of the various 
elements in the university. It is a coordinating office intimately as- 
sociated with, and generally having actual membership in, other 
offices, representing the financial and educational management. It 
is not intended here to strain a point in favor of the "American boss 
president," against whom President Harper years ago forewarned, 
writing that " the true college president is not a boss ; he is a fellow 
student and a brother, * * * an elder brother in close relation- 
ship with every member of the family." Nor is it intended to inti- 
mate that the British would gladly dream of seeing Prof. Cattell's 
nightmare of the American college president as a " black beast " in 
the academic jungle.- The Great Britain of to-day, in many features 
as democratic as America, illustrates the fundamental proposition 
of Prof. Cattell " of historic institutions, Sacerdotium, Imperium^ 
Studium, the University can in our democracy best conserve the 
traditions of the past and guide the progress of the future." The 

» Sir Henry A. Meirs, M. A, D. S. C, F. R. S., Bd. of Educ. Spec. Repts., vol. 
25, p. 5. 

2 Cattell, J. McKeen, " University Control," The Science Press, New York and Garri- 
son, N. Y., 1913, p. 31. 

•Cattell, supra, p. vi. 

89687°— Bull. 16— 17 12 



178 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

point is that " the advances of democracy and of science in our era " * 
have tended to cause the British universities to revert not to "the 
medieval university anarchic in its organization," ^ but to the later 
evolved university with " a single rector for the entire studium, a 
form adapted to the whole paraphernalia of the modern university 
with its endowments, buildings, departments, etc." When a de- 
mocracy follows the dream of Plato to make " a philosopher, ruler," 
attention is drawn to the opinion of one of Prof. Cattell's correspond- 
ents of the benefit of having a Woodrow Wilson in a university presi- 
dential chair. He thinks Princeton failed " to reap the full benefits 
therefrom, because the presidency carried with it too little power, 
and the other elements in the university too much."^ 

The general conclusions with reference to the three major bodies 
in the organization of a university drawn by the late principal of 
St. Andrews University correspond with our statement of facts and 
tendencies.* 

1. The governing body should be a small body, consisting of men of varied 
professions and interests, who are animated by a desire to benefit their fellow 
men by the encouragement of those studies and arts which constitute the work 
of a university. Among these men must be reclioned the teachers of the uni- 
versity, but they should not be a preponderating number. 

2. The senate or professors of a university should have the control of the 
education and discipline with or without a select number of other university 
teachers, but there should always be an appeal open from their decisions to the 
governing body. 

3. The graduates, and also the undergraduates, should have an opportunity 
of discussing all matters relating to th^^ welfare of the university in which they 
take a special interest and laying the results of their deliberations before the 
senate and the governing body, but their suggestion should be deemed simply 
advice and without legal authority. 

Under the first of these conclusions it should be observed that in all 
the universities the vice chancellor or principal is a member of the 
governing body, and in all of them there is representation of the 
professoriate. The pendulum has swung back and forth from the 
constitution of the governing body wholly of university teachers to 
their entire exclusion from that body, excepting only for the head of the 
institution. At present the point seems to be settled that in addition 
to the head of the institution, the professoriate should have a repre- 
sentation of not less than two members, and that there should be a 
predominance of distinguished laymen in education serving without 
fatj and primarily attending through salaried secretaries to financial 

1 Cattell, J. McKeen, " University Control," The Science Press, New York and Garri- 
son, N. Y., 1913, p. 7. 

2 Cattell, supra, p. 5. 
•Cattell, supra, p. S6. 

* Donaldson, Sir James, ' Representation of Teachers and Graduates on Governing 
Bodies." The Kept, of Proe. of the Cong, of the Universities of the Empire, Hodder & 
Stoughton, 1912. 



UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 179 

administration. The body is also expected to be a final authority on 
general policies and appointments. It is representative in part of 
public authorities and in part of graduates as well as of the faculties.^ 
Excepting permanent officials, membership falls into classes holding 
office for certain terms of years. 

Under the second conclusion it should be remarked that there is 
absolute unanimity that the control of the education and discipline 
should be vested in the academic body. The discipline being com- 
mitted to disciplinary officers. There is a strong tendency to insist 
that the entire teaching staff and not the professors only, should 
have representatives in the academic body. 

Under the third conclusion the uniform practice, excepting in 
Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, is that the organized graduates 
should have only the power of advice. The legal control surviving 
in convocation in Oxford, Cambridge and Durham, is sharply chal- 
lenged. The recognition of undergraduate opinion is increasing. 

Recently " advisory committees " have appeared as a rudimentary 
development of university organization. These committees, ap- 
pointed by the executive or faculty bodies, may include persons not 
members of the appointing bodies or of the university, interested or 
expert in the subjects referred for advice or report.^ These com- 
mittees give the university the benefit of the combined judgment of 
faculties and practitioners or laymen, and keep the institution in close 
touch with its environment. The value of these committees has been 
proven especially in professional, technical, and university extension 
education. Notable instances are the fruits of the advisory com- 
mittee of public health in Manchester, of the commerce advisory 
board, Birmingham, of the advisory committees representing various 
trades and departments of commerce, Heriot-Watt College, Edin- 
burgh, and of the joint committees of universities and representatives 
of the workingmen conducting tutorial classes in industrial dis- 
tricts.^ 

The further improvement in university government is a subject 
of discussion in every part of the British Isles. The modern six- 
fold plan of organization, it may be repeated, consists of the personal 
working head, of the large representative supreme legislative body, 
of the small executive body — including a limited faculty representa- 
tion — of the educational legislature with its faculty divisions, of the 

* Herein Is a suggestion of Prof. Cattell's first point in his plan for university control : 
" There should be a corporation, consisting of the professors and other officers of the 
university, the alumni who maintain their interest in the institution, and members of 
the community who ally themselves to it." Supra, p. 18. 

•E. g., University of Liverpool statutes, sections 28. 29. Cf. University of Man- 
chester, advisory committees of the faculty of commerce, of the faculty of theology, of 
the public health laboratories, of legal education, of mining, of technology, of agriculture. 

»Cf. Ch. XIX, "University Extension Teaching," pp. 252-254. 



180 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

advisory organization of graduates, and of undergraduates. The 
scheme is not without criticism as cumbersome, and giving oppor- 
tunity for mischievous persons or cliques to play their part at differ- 
ent points along the extended line. A few prominent personages 
have said they would " scrap " the whole system. Even a single 
executive council of academic and lay members has been suggested, 
possibly somewhat corespondent to Prof. Cattell's first proposition.* 

On the contrary, the latest studies confirm the sixfold scheme, 
at least for State-aided institutions. Not only the final report 
of the commission on university education in London, but what is 
known and creditably rumored from Reading, bears out this view. 
For several years Reading University College, in its preparation to 
become a university, has had a committee on university policy. This 
committee has made extended investigations as to a scheme of build- 
ings, the curriculum, and constitution of the new university. The re- 
port of the committee on the third point has not been published. We 
only know that it is hoped that the proposed form of university 
government " may free the teacher to the maximum possible ex- 
tent for his proper business of teaching and research." ^ The last 
well-authenticated rumor is that Reading will conform in the main 
to the sixfold plan of constitution of the other new universities. 

To point the moral of the present chapter, it is well to quote the 
common principle and practice in the constitution of American insti- 
tutions ^ written by a prominent American university president : 

To have the trust administered by its beneficiaries we have thought in the 
main in the United States to be inadvisable. Faculty, students, and alumni are 
in different senses, and yet in a very real sense, beneficiaries of the trust. 

For this and other reasons the president is convinced — 

(1) That the control of an institution of learning by a body of trustees com- 
posed on the whole of laymen is for us in the United States advisable. 

(2) That the educational adviser relationship established by that officer of 
the board of trustees commonly known as president or chancellor is the most 
effective. 

(3) That within the sphere of the power conferred on them by the board of 
trustees the faculties should exercise control, but outside of such sphere they 
should have no authority whatever. 

It has been seen that the British tendency is strong to adhere 
to the principle that a trust should not be administered by its bene- 
ficiaries. In practice also the president's three points are being fol- 
lowed with modifications based on the principle of a closer interre- 
lation of the three bodies by means of representation. A small 
representation of the faculty upon the body of trustees is insisted 
upon. The president or chancellor is to be a representative of the 

iCf. p. 179. 

2 The Reading Univ. Col. Rev., Mar., 1913, pp. 95, 96 ; Aug., 1913, pp. 176-178. 

» Cf. Cli. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 163. 



UNIVERSITY OFFICERS. 181 

faculty as well as an officer of the board of trustees. There are ex- 
tensive safeguards for the appointment of faculties and in their 
control of educational matters. Finally, the whole institution is kept 
in vital connection with its graduates, its students, the professions, 
and the public, by organizations of the first three of these named, 
and by advisory committees of the last, but all without authority 
except the weight of opinion expressed by them. 



Chapter XI. 

PROVISIONS FOR THE FACULTY. 



Greater precautions are used than is ordinarily the case in the 
United States to obtain a faculty, using the term in its broadest 
sense, of ability and to secure its stability and freedom. Among 
the various methods of appointment there is an increasing endeavor 
to rest the appointment on the merits and fitness of the candidate. 
The greatest care is given in the election of professors. In case of 
SI vacancy publicity is given by advertisement and by printed circulars 
inviting applications by candidates. Close inquiry, however, shows 
that though an applicant labors under no prejudice, the institution 
is not unlikely to give the appointment to someone it has sought out 
for itself. In the past, experiments have been made with every pos- 
sible method of election to professorships. Appointments by the 
Crown, now, relatively speaking, a small number, survive notably in 
the regius professorships at Oxford and Cambridge. At present 
these appointments are said to be free from favoritism and politics, 
practically made upon nominations from the university.^ 

Appointments by patrons may be said to have disappeared. Now, 
when a patron endows a chair, pains are taken that the appointment 
shall be made by experts. The election originally by " regents " and 
" nonregents," analogous to selection by faculties or graduates, of 
which there were still traces in " the vicious system of election of 
professors by convocation, which had been the parent of many 
abuses," was put an end to by the commissions of 1850 and 1877.^ 
The latter commission vested the elections, with the exception of 
professors appointed by the Crown, in boards of electors. Illus- 
trating from Cambridge, commonly a board of electors consists of 
eight members, two nominated by the council of the senate, three 
nominated by the general board of studies, and three by the special 
board of studies. These are standing boards not appointed ad hoc^ 
and holding office for terms of years. The members of the boards 
are chosen not only from the faculty, but from distinguished spe- 
cialists in the subjects in outside institutions. 

»Cf. Ch. XII, " state Aid and Visitation," p. 193. "Curzon, supra, p. 188. 

182 



PROVISIONS FOR THE FACULTY. 183 

The University of London, following in the wake of Oxford and 
Cambridge, requires that the title of professor or reader shall be 
conferred in each case after report from a board of advisers. The 
vice chancellor and the principal and three "external experts"; i. e., 
experts outside the university staff and unpaid by any institution 
in question, must be on every board. The boards vary as the ap- 
pointees are attached or unattached to any particular school or 
institution and in accordance with the source from which the salary 
is paid. For example, in the case of an unattached professorship 
and readership, the board of advisers, in addition to the vice chan- 
cellor and principal, consists of six other persons, of whom three 
shall be external experts, appointed by the senate after report from 
the relevant board or boards of studies. The external experts serve 
on all boards dealing with the same subjects or group of subjects, 
and are appointed for a term of six years without pay except for 
traveling expenses. By the universities (Scotland) act of 1889 the 
university courts became the power to appoint professors, excepting 
chairs vested in the Crown or other patrons. Edinburgh is unique 
in having curators of patronage. They indicate an early movement 
to secure an appointing power above suspicion of influence. By the 
universities act of 1858, the patronage of 17 chairs previously in the 
gift of the town council was transferred to 7 curators, 3 nominated 
by the university court and 4 by the town council. The curators 
also have the patronage or share in the patronage of several chairs 
established between 1858 and the exercise of the power conferred 
upon the university court after the act of 1889. 

In the new English universities, in general, the council appoints 
the professors and other members of the teaching staff on the recom- 
mendation of the senate. Subordinate appointments, like those of 
assistant lecturers and demonstrators, are made by the faculty upon 
the nomination of the professor or lecturer in charge of a department 
and confirmed by the council. 

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century there has been a 
revolution with reference to the qualifications for a professorship. 
At that time social considerations predominated. By the middle of 
the century Pattison complained that the professor-fellow was 
simply a teacher, whereas his primary business was to learn and not 
to teach. "A professoriate has for its duty to maintain, cultivate, and 
diffuse extant knowledge." Pattison guarded against the miscon- 
ception especially of the modern superuniversity theorist that the 
university is to be an association of men of science for the sake of 
science and experiments with a view to new discoveries. " The pro- 
fessoriate is to know what is known and definitely acquired for 



184 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

humanity on the most important human concerns."^ Dr. Farnell 
sees hopeful signs that the spirit of Pattison is prevailing. He says 
there is a growing insistence upon the combination of teaching and 
research for appointment to the highest teaching posts; and a living 
acquaintance with the methods of teaching and research and some 
approved work done therein are becoming essential prerequisites. 
He adds: 

This is by no means yet the rule in the Scottish universities; it is begin- 
ning to be the rule in many of the modern" colleges of England and Wales ; 
it has established itself on the whole at Oxford and Cambridge as regards 
professorial appointments, but by no means yet as regards the tutorial.* 

In fact there is now practiced almost universally the instruction 
given to the board of advisers in nominating any person for ap- 
pointment as university professor or reader in the University of 
London: "They shall have regard to (1) his contributions by re- 
search to the advancement of science or learning; (2) his powers as 
a teacher; (3) generally his eminence in his subject or in his profes- 
sion." 

The importance of security in the tenure of office of a professor is 
not likely to be forgotten in a country in which in the older institu- 
tions the appointment is for life, " ad vitam, aut culpam.'''' ^ In the 
modern universities, while it is expected that professors, readers, and 
independent lecturers shall hold office during good behavior, it is 
likely, in view of the new pension system, that an age limit for 
retirement at 65 will become universal.* 

There are provisions for resignation or removal upon three or six 
months' notice. In the case of misconduct or incapacity of a pro- 
fessor, the different institutions have various regulations safeguard- 
ing his tenure by due notice of dismissal and sometimes by the 
right of appeal from the executive to the legislative body. So unusual 
is the violation of the security of the tenure of a professorship that 
a rumor of it precipitates an inquiry in press and in Parliament. 

In the staff of instruction there is no such elaborate hierarchv 
as there is often in the United States. The titles associate, assistant, 
and adjunct are practically not used. A "reader" or permanent 
lecturer may have a fixed tenure like a professor. The scientific 
and modern methods of instruction have introduced a numerous 
junior staff of instructors and demonstrators, out of proportion to 
the number of professorships. This is a cause of complaint. 



* Tillyard, supra, p. 181. 

2 The Times, June 26, 1914. 

» In 1914, venerated and beloved, a master of Clare College, Cambridge, was in his 
ninety-fourth year, and the principals of St. Andrews and Edinburgh above 80 years of 
age. 

* E. g., " No professor shall hold office after he has completed his sixty-fifth year unless 
council on the recommendation of senate continue his office on special grounds." Uni- 
versity of Bristol, Standing Orders of Council, Mar., 1913, p. 56. 



PROVISIONS FOR THE FACULTY. 185 

especially in the Scotch universities.^ The appointments are from 
one to five years. The chances for an academic career are lessened, 
and hitherto the outside demand for university specialists has been 
small. The plea has been made, on behalf of the junior staif — 

To introduce an adequate scale of salaries and pension scheme for all mem- 
bers of the staff and to give them a voice in the management of the insti- 
tution * * * (;hg more important lectureships sliould be converted into 
professorships or adjunct professorships * * * as in American univer- 
sities.* 

The old story of the inadequacy of the remuneration of the teacher 
repeats itself in Britain as elsewhere. His emoluments, to say noth- 
ing of the pecuniary rewards of the business world, are not com- 
parable with those of other professions, excepting the clerical. An 
agitation of some 40 years for an increase of salaries, begun without 
special reference to the increase in the cost of living, has not yet 
realized its ideals, though advances have been secured.^ In 1876 at 
Oxford the salaries of professors ranged from even $500 or $1,000 
to $4,000. The Marquis of Salisbury said to the House of Lords : 

Compare these annual stipends with what is paid in other departments. I 
do not believe that less than $5,000 a year, with a fair pension beside, will 
secure the highest talent for those professorships.* 

In 1904 the average annual income of a professor at Cambridge 
was still not more than $2,750, with a range of a professor's stipend 
from $450 to $4,000 a year. New statutes had been adopted contem- 
plating a salary of $2,000 a year for a reader, but none received 
more than $1,500, and in several cases only $500. The stipends of 
university lecturers ranged from $250 to $1,000.^ These figures are, 
a decade later, substantially the same, except the minimum for pro- 
fessors. Members of the staff, and especially professors, have certain 
perquisites and opportunities for fees, particularly as examiners. 
The regulation of the University of London represents fairly well 
the amounts paid for salaries in the new universities.*' It reads : 

The guaranteed minimum salary for a university professor giving his whole 
time to the worli of his post shall be $3,000 per annum, and the guaranteed 
minimum salary of a reader giving his whole time to the post shall be $1,500 
per annum. 

In exceptional cases smaller salaries are permitted. In the matter 
of salaries a change for the better is coming slowly. The great 

1 E. g., the University of Glasgow in 1870, the professors in the staff were as ■ two 
to one ; to-day they are as one to four. The Times, Bdu. Supplement, Apr. 6, 1915. 
Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 64. 

2 The Times sup., supra. 

» Cf. Table 15, " Range of Salaries." 

*Tillyard, supra, p. 278. 

* Quarterly Review, Apr., 1906, cf. Tillyard, supra, p. 282. 

•Cf. Table 15, "Range of Salaries." 



186 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

inequalities due to the endowment of chairs in different periods are 
being removed. There is no attempt being made at absolute uni- 
formity, but only to establish minimum standards.^ In general the 
salaries in professional or technical chairs are higher than those of 
the academic professorships on account of the gains which may be 
obtained in practice. Without exception the salaries of the heads of 
universities and of colleges are materially larger than the maximum 
salary of a professor. In a majority of cases they are double the 
maximum.^ 

The attempt to establish pension systems in all the universities is 
the most important recent movement. The older universities, with 
the life tenure, had little occasion for anything but disability pen- 
sions. They met the need largely by the use of fellowships* or by 
doles in special cases. 

In the eighteenth century a " fund " was established " for a pro- 
vision for the the widows and children of the ministers of the Church 
of Scotland, and of the heads, principals, and masters in the Uni- 
versities of St. Andrews, Edinburg, Glasgow, and Aberdeen." The 
scheme was a contributory one. The universities (Scotland) act of 
1889 empowered the commission to provide a pension scheme for 
principals and professors. Attention was focused upon the subject 
of pensions by the establishment of them in the twentieth century 
English universities, and by the national old-age pensions act of 
1908. Oxford and Cambridge did not escape the movement, and both 
of them have formulated pension schemes, though for lack of means 
they have not been put into operation. These universities, as com- 
pared with the Scotch and new English institutions, have to contend 
with the absence of financial support from the State and the com- 
plications arising from their college systems. 

In 1909 Cambridge appointed a pension syndicate which reported 
in favor of the university's forming its own pension fund and of 
a noncontributory scheme. With certain exceptions its beneficiaries 
were to be professors, readers, and university officers, with not less 
than 15 years of service. The main provisions were compulsory re- 
tirement at the age of 70 ; a possible retirement after the age of 65 ; 
in case of a stipend of $3,000 or more a maximum pension of $2,500 
a year, or an annual payment equal to five-sixths of the stipend, and 
an annual payment equal to one twenty-fifth of the maximum pen- 

^The stipends of the Oxford and Cambridge college stafCs vary. This is true not only 
of the fellowships, but of the payments to the members of the educational staff. The scale 
of payment at one of the large colleges is doubtless above the average. Senior lecturer, 
£525 a year ; lecturer or assistant tutor, in accordance with years of service, from £262 
to £420 ; assistant lecturer, £210 ; tutor, £682, plus stipend as lecturer ; senior tutor, 
additional, £105. 

* Cf. Report of the committee on Scottish universities (cd. 5257), 1910, p. 9. 

»Cf. Ch. I, "Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 32. 



PROVISIONS FOR THE FACULTY. 187 

sion for each year of service.^ Professors and readers on retirement 
after the age of 65 might become emeriti professors and readers, 
without statutory duties or powers. A relief pension might be 
granted in special cases under exceptional conditions by grace.^ The 
university is accumulating a pension fund in accordance with this 
scheme, and also one for assistants, clerks, and servants,^ 

Also, in 1909, at Oxford, Lord Curzon included among the reforms 
he advocated the establishment of a professorial pension fund, the 
colleges having already instituted pension funds for their tutors.* 
In the meantime, $50,000 having been given for the purpose of form- 
ing a pension fund, in 1913 a statute was promulgated for the estab- 
lishment of a pension scheme and fund by the university. It was to 
be an old-age pension scheme, limited to certain professorships 
tenable for life. It provided for compulsory retirement at the age 
of 70, upon an annual pension equal to one-half of the stipend at 
the date of the vacation of office, with the provisos if the service was 
only 9 years or less the pension should be diminished by one-tenth 
for each year short of 10 years, and if the service had been for 26 
years or more the pension should be increased by one-twentieth for 
each year exceeding 25, but no pension to exceed two-thirds of the 
stipend at the date of vacation.^ 

The federated superannuation scheme for English universities and 
university colleges in receipt of exchequer grants, inaugurated under 
the auspices of the board of education in 1913, has justified the 
opinion of the board that it is " one of the most important develop- 
ments which have been made in recent years in the sphere of uni- 
versity work." ® The scheme is extending beyond all the institutions 
in receipt of the grant in England to other university institutions. 
The board's indirect connection with the scheme through their ad- 
visory committee has been terminated. Its supervision has been 
taken over by a central council, composed of representatives from 
all the institutions cooperating in it, and an executive committee of 
that council. In 1912-13 the Government grant to these institutions 
for superannuation was over $45,000. Inclusive of this amount the 
institutions expended for the purpose $114,200, or 3.4 per cent of 
their total expenditure. The scheme, in brief, is compulsory on every 
new entrant of the teaching and administrative staff with a salary 
of $1,500 or upward, and optional for a member with the salary of 

1 Cambridge University Reporter. Oct. 9, 1911. By statute in 1882 the university 
was empowered to give pensions to retiring or disabled professors or readers. Cam, 
Univ. Statutes, 1904, with supplement, 1911, pp. 49, 51, 58. 

2Cf. Cam. Univ. Reporter, Mar. 5, 1912, pp. 670-676, 

3 Cam. Unvi. Reporter, Mar. 23, 1914, p. 30. Cf, p. 64. 

* Curzon, supra, p, 189. 

* Oxford University Gazette, May 7, 1913. 

* Bd. of Educ. Repts., Universities and Univ. Colleges, vol. 1, 1914, p. vll. 



188 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

between $1,000 and $1,500, and with the consent of the institution 
for a member with a salary of between $800 and $1,000. The plan 
requires an annual contribution of 10 per cent of the salary, except- 
ing in the case of the excess of a salary above $5,000. The normal 
contribution is 5 per cent of salary by the beneficiary and 5 per cent 
by the institution, but the governing body may increase their pro- 
portion of the total 10 per cent. The ordinary means of financing 
the system is by arrangement with selected insurance companies for 
endowment assurance policies or deferred annuity policies, with or 
without return of premiums, at the option of the beneficiary, though 
it is possible for an institution to create its own pension fund. Every 
policy is held by the institution upon a discretionary trust in order 
to safeguard the interest of the beneficiary, and, in case of his re- 
moval from one institution to another, to facilitate the transfer of 
the policies. The insurance policies mature at 60. It is a mistake 
to speak of 60 as " an age of compulsory retirement." ^ The age at 
which the policies mature is fixed at 60, but institutions have com- 
plete freedom in determining the actual age of retirement. After 60 
and up to the age of actual retirement the proceeds of the policy, 
together with the further contributions both by the university and 
the beneficiary, may accumulate at compound interest by arrange- 
ment with the insurance company. The reason why 60 is taken for 
the maturity of the insurance policy is that this is the earliest age at 
which normal retirement at present takes place, and the decrease in 
the surrender value of the policy if a greater age than 60 were fixed 
for its maturity. The underlying principles of the scheme and its 
" considerable flexibility " to meet the varied needs, especially of 
smaller institutions, are causing its spread in England and adapta- 
tions of it in America.^ 

The fundamental principle is: 

That the teachers in all the universities constitute a profession comparable 
with the civil service, and that transference from one university to another 
should not be accompanied by a financial penalty any more than is transfer- 
ence from one Government office to another.' 

The principle of compulsory contribution by the beneficiary and 
the institution, the contribution distributed over the whole of the 
working life of the beneficiary, is a recognition of the pension as in 
the nature of deferred pay. The inclusion as far as possible of all 

* An error coupled with another, " that the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
♦ * • are not assisted by the British Government in any manner." The Carnegie 
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Eighth Ann. Rept, 1913, p. 46. Pp. 39-46 
contain a good history and summary of the federated system. 

* Cf. Mass., teachers' retirement law, Carnegie Foundation Rept., supra, p. 46 ; and 
the Mass. bill to establish a retirement system for employees in the public service, Car- 
negie Foundation, Ninth Ann. Rept., 1914, p. 27. 

■Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 450. 



PROVISIONS FOR THE FACULTY. 189 

the members of the permanent teaching and administrative staff is 
a imifying as well as profitable principle. The policy of coopera- 
tion by institutions, with liberty for variation in the application of 
details of the scheme by any given institution, and the economy in 
making use of existing insurance companies have caused the plan 
rapidly to supplant other schemes.^ The advisory committee were 
not convinced that adequate provision is at present made for the 
families of members of the staffs, but the way is open for the im- 
provement of the scheme by the provision that the executive com-, 
mittee are to make recommendations to the central council from 
time to time in regard to questions of importance. 

1 Cf. Bd. of Educ. First Report of the Advisory Committee on the Distribution of 
Exchequer Grants to Universities and University Colleges in England. Mar. 28, 1912 
(Cd. 6140) ; Second Rep., Feb. 4, 1913 (Cd. 6617) ; Third Rep., June 11, 1913 (Cd. 
6869). 



Chapter XII. 
STATE AID AND VISITATION. 



All the universities and university colleges in the United Kingdom 
receive direct grants from the State. These grants have increased 
by leaps and bounds since the first grant in 1882-83 of $10,000 to 
the Aberystwyth University College. By 1886-87 the three Welsh 
University Colleges were dividing $60,000 equally among them. In 
1912-13 the exchequer grant to these three colleges amounted to 
$127,500. The first exchequer grant in England began in 1887-88 
and 1888-89, with the sum of $10,000 to Manchester, and by 1912-13 
reached the amount of $745,000 divided among 18 English uni- 
versities and colleges. To this sum must be added other parlia- 
mentary grants under the board of education for technological and 
professional w^ork, and from other Government departments like 
the board of agriculture, making a total to the 18 English institu- 
tions including the exchequer grant of $1,164,105, and to the Welsh 
colleges of $171,085. The percentage of total income from the State 
of the 18 English institutions is 35.2, and of the Welsh institu- 
tions 54.3. 

In 1883 the four Scottish universities, chiefly through annual 
votes by Parliament, w^ere receiving State aid in the sum of $141,610.' 
Encouraged by the increasing annual grants to the English and 
Welsh uni-s'ersities and university colleges, in 1907 the Scottish uni- 
versities appealed for enlarged grants. The committee on Scottish 
universities in 1910 reported in favor of an annual grant of $200,000, 
supplementary to the $360,000 they were then receiving, and that 
sum was given.^ 

Considerably more than $500,000 is annually granted to the Uni- 
versity of London and the institutions associated with it. The in- 
fluence of the rising flood of State aid has begun to tell upon the 
older universities. Their age-long policy, with the exception of a 
few small doles for specific purposes, has been to be independent 
of State aid. The most significant educational event in Great Brit- 
ain in 1912 was the acceptance by Oxford of a grant for engineering 
science.^ 

In 1913 and 1914 Cambridge faced the question of State aid, and 
voted to appeal for an annual grant of between $20,000 and $25,000 

iRep. of the Committee on Scottish Universities, 1910 (Cd. 5257), p. 18. 

• Cf . Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 48. 

•Cf. Ch. XIV, "Applied Science and Professional Education," p. 210. 

190 



STATE AID AND VISITATION. 191 

for the medical department.^ The debates in the senate house were 
followed by the battle " of fly sheets." The question is such a living 
one on both sides of the Atlantic that some of the principal points 
in the discussion may be given. It was argued that the principle 
of applying for State aid had been fully considered in all the other 
universities of the United Kingdom, including Oxford, with a deci- 
sion in favor of accepting grants. Communications were cited from 
authorities in universities receiving grants showing that the expe- 
rience of these universities had been free from unfavorable results 
and interference. It was replied that — 

There was a desire to help the younger universities in their interesting 
infancy by giving them a dole, but the Government never contemplated such 
help for Cambridge and Oxford. It would be confiscation of public funds, a 
hardship on the poor, struggling taxpayer, to encourage an application of the 
kind for Cambridge. 

Reference was made to the opinion expressed in 1912 by the gen- 
eral council of the University of Edinburgh against the proposed 
imposition of conditions upon the payment of parliamentary grants 
by the treasury regarding the inclusive fee, as " interfering unwar- 
rantably with the freedom of the Scotch universities." To the lat- 
ter point it was answered that the Treasury did not attempt to impose 
new conditions in connection with an existing grant, but to give an 
additional grant in compensation for the loss of income which might 
follow the adoption of an " inclusive fee." It was added that now 
Edinburgh had temporarily accepted as an experiment the offer of 
the additional grant which had been accepted by the other Scotch 
universities. The argument was pressed home that the medical de- 
partment in Cambridge was gravely in want of monetary assistance, 
and that the university and colleges were not in a condition to meet 
it, nor were benefactions in sight. This caused a debate upon the 
old question, if State aid would not stop private munificence upon 
which the older universities depended for support. It was said that 
" the great benefactions in America were not given to State universi- 
ties, but to the independent institutions." There stood out, however, 
on the other side, the experience in this particular of the Scottish 
and new English universities. In 1910 the Scottish universities com- 
mittee reported that since the grants of the act of 1889 the larger 
part of probably not less than $.5,000,000 had been received from 
private benefactors or raised by local effort. The testimony of Read- 
ing is consonant with the facts at all the new universities: 

At Reading local munificence has been conspicuous, has been encouraged by 
State recognition of the progress accomplished * * * ^^e public recogni- 

» Mar. 14, 1914, the senate took the vote ; Placet, 267 ; non-Placet, 235. 



192 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

tion of worth and effectiveness implied in the award of treasury and other 
Government grants has been an indispensable antecedent condition of each of 
the considerable private benefactions. * 

The fundamental objection to the reception of State aid was the 
preservation of academic freedom. The objection was formulated by 
Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson : 

It was most desirable that there should be some educational authority in 
this country free from the control of the board of education, free to work out 
its own scheme in its own way, without any interference from outside. 

The argument was elaborated. The existing liability to parlia- 
mentary interference Avould be increased by the annual appearance on 
the estimates of the grant, subject to criticism and defeat by a 
snapped vote in the committee of supply. A second source of inter- 
ference would be in the development of a bureaucracy in the depart- 
ment of education, at the very least burdening professors with official 
communications as to details. It was suggested that the preserva- 
tion of — 

six centuries of independent self-government carried on to the honor of the 
university and the advantage of the nation was endangered by mysterious 
schemes, which were in embryo at the board of education, for the centralization 
of education and its standardization. 

The reply of those in favor of the grant was that the objections were 
based on fear of inspection by outside persons, and fear of interfer- 
ence with university teaching by outside criticism. In general it 
was urged that the advantages which would accrue to the medical 
school if the proposal was carried through would far outweigh the 
problematical risks based on fear. It was denied that the grant would 
put university teaching under the control of a Government depart- 
ment, because the conditions under which the grant would be made 
are limited to a consideration of the size and efficiency of the school 
and to knowledge that the money is spent in forwarding the objects 
for which it is granted. 

The procedure of the board of education in the case of the uni- 
versities' grants was cited. The board — 

appointed not an " inspector " but a " visitor," and that person was selected 
by an advisory committee of experts ; the visitation was not " annual." The 
object of the visitation was not disciplinary, but that the board might be 
able to obtain first-hand knowledge, and to collect information of the working 
of departments in different universities. If any important suggestion were to 
be made to the university, it was done only after consultation with the advisory 
committee. The board did not desire to introduce any policy of its own ; 
it could give advice or knowledge it had been able to gather, but freedom 
must be left to the university to work out its own policy of education. The 
grants were given to the school as a whole and in a lump sum, not to individual 

» Agile. Educ. Rep. of Deputation, Reading, 1910, p. 107. 



STATE AID AND VISITATION. 1Q3 

(loparliiK'Uts. The proportion j^iven to ouch department wouhl be decided l)y 
the university, not by the " board." ' 

To the thought that the present policy of the board might be 
altered, or that Parliament might intervene, it was conceded that 
it was not impossible, but that it was very improbable in the light 
of established practice. In any case Parliament was all-powerful. 
On the whole the freedom of the universities from State interference 
had been maintained. Springing up without charters from the State, 
the older universities, though not formally receiving State aid, had 
been indebted to the State through privileges and exemptions con- 
ferred and through royal patronage. They were related to the 
State through the public character of their life-long chancellors, 
through Crown appointment of many professors, and by the visita- 
tions of royal commissions and ensuing acts of Parliament.^ 

The new universities, though the charters run in the name of the 
Sovereign, are universities of the people, founded by local contri- 
butions and generosity. They are not, therefore, State universities 
in the American sense of being State-owned and State-controlled, 
though so largely State-supported. The grants are determined on 
the report of experts in consideration of two facts: (1) The effi- 
ciency of the university and the value of the work which it does, 
and (2) the extent of the local support which it receives. The 
Treasury, the board of education, or other board administering tlie 
funds constitute advisory committees, ordinarily quinquennially, con- 
sisting of the most eminent educators or experts, who serve without 
salaries. This method of distributing State aid in lump sums, 
together with the broadly representative membership of the au- 
tonomous governing body of each institution, prevents the evils of 
State interference and combines the benefits of State relation.ship 
with efficiency and freedom in the institution. It is hardly con- 
ceivable, if the educational institutions in Britain were wholly State- 
owned and supported, that they w^ould make them departments of 
the State, in the hands of salaried officers subject to political 
changes. The fact that institutions of higher learning, whether 
privately endowed or otherwise, are public institutions in their 
nature and by charter is recognized by the office of visitor ^ in the 
new universities, and the other provisions for visitation by advisory 
committees and occasional roj^al commissions. May not the 
State universities in the United States profit by the example of the 
State-aided institutions in the arrangements to secure efficiency of 
administration and to safeguard against unwise State interference, 

» Cf. Cam. Uni. Reporters, Oct., 1913, Mar., 1914 ; and fly-sheets, pro and con, issued 
Mar., 1914. 

2 Cf. Chs. X, " University Officers," pp. 171-174 ; XI, " Provisions for the Faculty," 
p. 182. 

8Cf. Ch. X, "University Officers," pp. 173-174. 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 la 



1*94 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

and the endowed institutions profit by the example of State visita- 
tion, in just recognition of their public status, and to strengthen 
their hold upon the public ? 

The war promises to introduce a new epoch in State aid to higher 
education. The dependence of all the institutions, including Oxford 
and Cambridge, upon fees to meet a considerable proportion, in some 
cases two-fifths, of their current expenses, has threatened financial 
disaster in view of the shrinkage, sometimes of two-thirds, of attend- 
ance due to the war. The additional emergency grant, after the out- 
break of the war, of $225,000 for 1914-15 to the board of education 
for institutions in receipt of grants may be a happy augury for the 
future. On the other hand, a parliamentary retrenchment com- 
mittee has begun its labors by scrutinizing the expenditures of the 
board of education, of the road board and development commission, 
and of the board of agriculture and fisheries. The advisory com- 
mittee on university grants and the treasury have asked for state- 
ments and estimates of income and expenditure and of proposed 
economies. 

The first response is an appeal against reduction of grants during 
the war, in a letter to the committee from the vice chancellors of 
Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Sheffield.^ In the statement of 
these universities, which is more or less that of all the institutions, 
they seize the opportunity to reach the public with arguments to 
which the British public is likely, as never before, to be attentive. 
They assert that " the value of the universities as arsenals of scien- 
tific knowledge is now much more generally understood in England 
than was the case before the war." They believe : 

That the expenditure on the universities has been a highly remunerative 
national investment, though not so remunerative as it would have been had the 
responsible leaders of British industry i-ealized more quickly the value of 
science under modern conditions of trade. 

The service of the institutions "both in connection with the war 
and in the economic reconstruction that may follow it" emboldens 
them to appeal " in the economic interest of the nation to increase the 
public grants, even at the present time of financial difficulty." The 
financial embarrassment of Oxford and Cambridge has already 
required acts of Parliament - to enable them to readjust funds. With 
their attendance reduced in 1915-16 from above 3,000, respectively, 
to something like 600, and with some of their colleges closed, they 
too may be driven to ask increased state aid. 

1 Printed in The Times Edu. Sup., Oct. 5, 1915. 

« Universities and Colleges (Emergency Powers) Act, 1915. 



Chapter XIII. 
COORDINATION OF INSTITUTIONS. 



The vexed problem of securing economy and efficiency by the co- 
ordination of institutions of higher learning of the same or different 
types, and especially in different localities, affords a variety of 
instructive experiments in Great Britain. First comes the ancient 
and unique confederation of colleges, to which we have referred in 
Oxford and Cambridge. It was not without its influence upon the 
varieties of the modern federal university like London,^ Victoria 
(Manchester), and the universities of Wales and Ireland, which 
illustrate the second method of coordination. Coordination by 
amalgamation of two independent and rival institutions into one 
is so difficult that it took nearly three centuries to accomplish it in the 
case of Aberdeen.- Then it was only effected by the strong arm of 
the State. Beneficial as have been the results of the amalgama- 
tion, after almost 60 years a distinct line of cleavage may yet be 
detected in the united university. So persistent is institutional life, 
so potential are historical associations, and so sacred are inherited 
trusts, that, evidently, the intervention of the State is only justified 
in extreme cases. 

Coordination through a single educational corporation without 
complete financial incorporation has been evolved at Durham and 
Newcastle and at St. Andrews and Dundee.'' In both cases the diffi- 
culties have been those of reconciling the ancient with the modern 
spirit, and of combining institutions in different localities, and align- 
ing local interests. It has taken thirty or forty years to work out 
the problem. The growth has been from affiliation to incorporation. 
At Durham in 1851 a nominal relationship began with the " New- 
castle-upon-Tyne School of Medicine and Surgery " ; the title of 
the latter became " The Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine 
in connection with the University of Durham." In 1870 a closer 
connection was formed by which the college was called " The Uni- 
versity of Durham College of Medicine." 

' Cf. Chs. Ill, " University of London," p. 73, passim, 77 ; IV, " The New or Provincial 
Universities," p. 108, passim. 

2 Cf . Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 56. 

3 Cf. Chs. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," p. 43, passim ; II, " Scotch Universi- 
ties," p. 57» 

195 



196 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

In this period (1871) at Newcastle the University of Durham and 
the North of England Mining and Mechanical Engineers established 
" Durham University College of Physical Science," now known as 
Armstrong College. The faculty of science in the University of Dur- 
ham " is seated entirely at Armstrong College," where all the work 
for the degree of B, Sc. is done. Early the Newcastle students were 
admitted by the university to the degrees in letters, though not until 
recently to the degrees in arts. The arm's-length affiliation did not 
stay the tendency to develop two rival institutions. The reconstitu- 
tion of the university in 1909, through an act of Parliament, by a 
plan of finely devised balances, has apparently established a stable 
equilibrium. In the one university there are the " Durham division " 
and the " Newcastle division." The oneness of the university is se- 
cured through one visitor, one chancellor, one vice chancellor, and 
other university officers, one senate, one convocation, and a united 
professoriate. 

The nicely calculated balance of authority is worked out in the 
senate, the supreme governing find executive body of the university, 
W'ith control of purely university property and fees. Of the 38 other 
members than the chancellor of the senate, 6 are appointed by the 
King in Council, 12 each by the Durham division and the Newcastle 
division, 8 members are elected by the one convocation, with the pro- 
viso that 4 shall have been students of the Durham division and 4 
students of the Newcastle division. Provision is made in each 
division that half of the representatives shall be chosen by the pro- 
fessors or teachers. In the Newcastle division the representation 
from the College of Medicine is 4 and from Armstrong College 8. 

The statutes declare, " There shall be professors of the university 
and professors in the university." The professors of the university 
consist of certain persons with vested rights, and of any persons 
declared by the senate to be professors of the university in positions 
for which the senate may have received funds. Professors in the 
university are those appointed to the office by the council of the 
Durham Colleges, or by the council or other executive authority of 
the College of Medicine, or of Armstrong College, or persons deter- 
mined by the senate in an affiliated institution. 

Under the powers of the senate to suspend or remove from the 
membership of the university, professors and other teachers of the 
university may be suspended or removed with the right of appeal to 
the visitor. 

Each faculty has its board, consisting of professors and such other 
members of the teaching staff as the senate may choose. The general 
powers of the faculty board are to advise the senate and the authori- 
ties of the colleges in the university with reference to the curriculum, 
examinations, degrees, and the appointment of examiners. 



COORDINATION OF INSTITUTIONS. 197 

There is also a general board of faculties, consisting of all the 
members of the several boards of faculties, to make representations 
to the senate upon any matter concerning the curricula or examina- 
tions of the university. No curriculum of university study, or 
scheme of examination, for initial degrees, shall take effect unless 
approved by the senate, though it may have been formulated by the 
executive authority of a college. 

The provisions for safeguarding the autonomy of the units in the 
university are as explicit as those for the institutions' unification. 
At present there are three units recognized administratively, namely, 
the councils of the Durham Colleges, of the College of Medicine, and 
of Armstrong College. Each exercises " full control over the teach- 
ing, residence, and maintenance, and discipline of all students of 
the college." Each controls its finances apart from certain statutable 
payments to and from the university. Each college in the New- 
castle division is an incorporated society whose members are called 
governors. The executive of each college is a president and council. 
In each the educational work is primarily in the hands of its teach- 
ing staff. 

A similar experiment to that at Durham has been tried at St. 
Andrews University and the University College, Dundee.^ In 1885 
an arrangement was made with St. Andrews under which the science 
degree of the university was thrown open to students of the Dundee 
College. Under the universities (Scotland) act of 1889 the commis- 
sioners were empowered — 

To affiliate the said university college to and make it form part of the said 
university, with the consent of the university court of St. Andrews, and also 
the said college with the object, inter alia, of establishing a fully equipped 
conjoint university school of medicine, having due regard to existing inter- 
ests, and to the aims and constitution of the said college, as set forth in its 
deed of endowment and trust. 

An agreement was made providing that the property of Dundee 
College should remain under the control of the college council, and 
also the expenditures for maintenance, and the salaries of its staff. 
On the other hand, the agreement specified that — 

The council of Dundee College should have no jursidiction over the univei*- 
sity teaching in the college or over the courses for graduation, the fees for 
classes forming part of these courses, or any other academic matters ejusdem 
generis with those named. 

The university court agreed to develop the college on the lines of 
its foundation. The court was entitled to employ the services of 
any Dundee professor at St. Andrews and of any St. Andrews pro- 
fessor at Dundee with the consent of the professor and of the sen- 
ate and of the council. The arts degree, as well as that in science 

1 Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," pp. 5&-57 ; also p. 202. 



198 HIGHEK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

was opened to the students of Dundee. The college flourished under 
the arrangement. Opponents of the union, however, by litigation on 
a technical point succeeded in having it set aside from 1894 to 1897, 
when it was restored after a decision in the House of Lords. New 
questions precipitated by additional grants, inclusive fees, and their 
collection, etc., have caused disputes; nevertheless the plan promises 
to be permanent. ^ 

The principal of Dundee College is appointed by the college 
council. He, together with the provost of the city of Dundee, is a 
member of the university court of St. Andrews, thus the college has 
independent representation in the executive body of the university. 
But the professors and other members of the stafl' of the college 
teaching subjects qualifying for graduation are appointed, not by 
the college council, but by the university court. 

The notable difference between the Durham plan and that of 
St. Andrews is the statutory provision in the former for an exact 
equality of representation of the colleges in the supreme governing 
body of the university. Both plans have found a way of securing 
the Aveight and fame of a single institution, of preventing the de- 
velopment of rival institutions with unnecessary overlapping, of 
preserving the entity and the financial independence of each insti- 
tution with the benefit of the local enthusiasm attendant upon it. 
The supremacy also of educational interests and administration to 
which the financial are made subsidiary is conserved. 

A fifth method of coordination is that of cooperation secured by 
voluntary agreements between independent corporations. Recent and 
happy examples of this procedure are found in the agreements made 
between Heriot-Watt College and the University of Edinburgh and 
between the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, and the University 
of Glasgow.^ 

The University of Edinburgh and Heriot-Watt College led the 
way by an agreement in 1901 " to secure mutual cooperation in the 
training of engineers." A joint advisory committee was appointed 
consisting of the dean of the faculty of science and four professors 
in the university and the principal of the college and four governors 
of George Heriot's trust. A professor in the college was made a 
member of the examining board for the engineering degree at the 
university. The advisory committee was " to draw up each year a 
program for a joint curriculum of study " to be submitted to the 
university court and to the governors of George Heriot's trust. By 

1 Report of the decision of the House of Lords in an appeal relating to the anion 
betwixt the University of St. Andrews and University College, Dundee, July 27, 1896 ; 
statement by the university court, St. Andrews, 1912 ; memorandum by Principal Sir 
James Donaldson (undated) ; memorial for the university court of St. Andrews for the 
opinion of council, January, 1913. 

2 Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 65. 



COOSDliTATION OP INSTITUTIOKS. 199 

this arrangement diploma students of the college received part of 
their training at the university and degree students of the university 
received part of their instruction at the college. It was expressly 
stated that the agreement should " involve no financial responsibility 
of either contracting party toward the other." 

In 1912 the cooperation between the university and Heriot-Watt 
was carried much further by the development of a complete scheme 
for degrees in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering. For the 
first time the staff and equipment of the college are fully utilized 
for the benefit of university students. The program of studies 
provides that all classes in the first-year course are to be taken at 
the university. In the second and third years Heriot-Watt College 
classes in specialized subjects are interspersed with those in the 
university. 

After careful consideration by a joint advisory committee of the 
University of Glasgow and of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 
a scheme of cooperation of the institutions, called affiliation, was 
devised, which was approved by the lords of the Scottish universi- 
ties committee in 1911 and by the King in council in 1913. The plan 
w^as one of cooperation, departing from strict affiliation in not re- 
quiring the representation of the university court on the governing 
body of the college nor the representation of the governing body 
of the college in the university court. The separate financial admin- 
istration of each of the institutions was to continue unaltered. 

The senatus academicus of the university instituted a joint board 
of studies and applied science, consisting of the principal of the 
university, the director of the college, the university professors 
whose subjects qualify for graduation in applied science, and the 
college professors conducting approved college courses in applied 
science, together with such university and college lecturers in ap- 
plied science as they may appoint.^ 

The university court, having received from the senatus a report 
by the joint board of studies in applied science, has approved 
courses of instruction given during the daytime in the college as 
equivalent to courses of instruction given in the university for de- 
grees in applied science. The professors and lecturers concerned 
are to submit annually a scheme of courses and a syllabus of the 
subjects to the joint board of studies who report thereon to the 
senatus and to the governors of the college. The senatus in turn 
reports thereon to the university court. 

The governors of the college may communicate to the university 
court their recommendation upon the reports framed by the joint 

1 At present there are 11 members each from the university and the college in the 
joint board of studies in applied science. 



200 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

board of studies. The university court makes the final deliverance 
to the senatus and to the governors of the college. The examiners 
in each subject for graduation are the teacher in the university, 
the teacher in the college, and an additional examiner appointed 
by the university court. Candidates for graduation who attend ap- 
proved college courses must pass the same examinations for admis- 
sion and graduation as the students who attend university courses. 
They are required to matriculate in the university. They enjoy 
the same privileges and are subject to the same discipline as other 
matriculated students. 

The fees for approved college courses are not to be less than the 
fees for university courses and are to be collected and retained by 
the governors of the college. The fees for courses given in the 
university and for matriculation, examination, graduation, and reg- 
istration are to be collected and retained by the university court. 

Coordination by a coalition of universities to insure common 
standards in fees and examinations exists in Scotland, and with ref- 
erence to examinations in the four new northern English universities. 

The Universities (Scotland) act of 1889 empowered the commis- 
sioners to make a closer coordination than the existing coalition. The 
act contemplated the establishment of a general university court, over 
and above the four universities' courts — 

With a view of taking in review the general interests of the universities, espe- 
ckilly In regard to degrees and examinations, and with the duty of reporting 
to Her Majesty on new ordinances or changes in existing ordinances affecting 
all or any of the universities, and with power to report to the secretary for 
Scotland on matters connected with the universities. 

Evidently fearing the dangers of centralization and of oppor- 
tunities for state interference, and appreciating the worth of the 
individualism of institutions, the commissioners did not establish a 
general university court.^ They left to each university court the 
appropriation of the lump sum allotted to the university out of the 
annual grant. They reserved to each university court the power 
to make new ordinatices, but effected an interrelation of the four 
universities by the proviso that such ordinances — 

before being submitted to His Majesty for approval, shall have been communi- 
cated by the university court to the senate, the general council, and the univei-- 
sity courts of the other universities, and have been laid for 12 weeks before 
both Houses of Parliament. 

The preliminary examinations for each of the four universities are 
conducted under the control and supervision of a joint board of 
examiners, consisting of 16 members, each university court appoint- 



1 "An occasional conference of representatives of the four university courts and also a 
conference of the general councils has fulfilled one of the purposes of the rejected uni- 
versity court. 



COORDINATION OF INSTITUTIONS. 201 

ing 4 annually, under a scheme representing the four branches of 
English, classics, mathematics and dynamics, and modern lan- 
guages. The joint board meets for a year at each of the university 
centers in rotation.^ 

After the dissolution of the Federal Victoria University, the 
charters of the four northern universities provided for their coalition 
to maintain standards for admission and degrees, and to make pos- 
sible interchangeable attendance at these universities.- An alteration 
of a statute or ordinance relating to these matters, proposed by any 
one of these universities, can not become operative until it has been 
communicated to the other three universities. If any of the univer- 
sities object, the question is to be considered by a joint committee of 
the four universities. In default of agreement, any of the universi- 
ties may make a representation to the King in council. In this event 
without the allowance of the King in council the statute or ordinance 
does not become operative. 

The charters make it the duty of each of the universities to co- 
operate with the others by means of a joint board for the regulation 
and conduct of matriculation examinations. The present statutes 
provide that the board shall consist of 20 members, 5 to be elected 
annually by each of the four universities wdth power to coopt 5 per- 
sons of educational experience. The joint board is to determine the 
conditions and subjects of the examination, together with possible 
exemptions. The senate of each university may exempt from the 
matriculation examination candidates for a degree whom it judges 
qualified by higher study. Each university has the power to require 
a standard higher than that of the matriculation examination, to 
exercise its judgment with reference to certain optional subjects, and 
the acceptance of exemptions recognized by the board, and to admit 
unmatriculated students to such classes as it thinks fit. 

It will be seen that the coalition of the northern universities is a 
reflection of that in Scotland, but not so closely bound by the letter 
of the law and showing a tendency to emphasize the individualism 
of the institutions. 

Affiliation and recognition may be counted as vague or initial 
degrees of coordination. As early as 1875-76 Durham affiliated two 
small missionary colleges.^ The institution applying for affiliation 
must satisfy the senate of the University of Durham that " provision 
has been made for its establishment on a permanent and efficient foot- 
ing and for its government." 

1 For some time a draft ordinance by the four university courts increasing the powers 
of the joint board and affecting the regulations as to preliminary examinations has been 
under consideration. 

2 Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," p. 108, passim ; p. 111. 
* Codrington College, Barbadoes, and Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone. 



202 HIGHER EDUCATION IIST ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The senate must be satisfied that — 

the teaching staff of the college is adequately qualified for the training of 
students in subjects set for examination by the university in the faculty or 
department in respect of which the application for affiliation is made. The 
equipment of the institution in buildings and apparatus must also be satis 
factory. 

Students properly certified by the affiliated college as having 
passed the matriculation and public examinations of the university, 
and as having fulfilled the conditions of the senate as to residence, 
atttendance, and conformity to discipline required of students of 
the university, are registered as matriculated students and receive the 
degrees of the university. 

At the same time that Durham was taking this action the report 
of the commissioners on Scottish universities of 1876 shows that they 
were considering various plans of affiliation between St. Andrews 
and a proposed college at Dundee.^ The commissioners, influenced 
by the disadvantages of the reduplication of the arts chairs in Dun- 
dee and in St. Andrews, favored a plan to establish at Dundee a 
college affiliated to the university, the professors of Avliich should 
be members of the faculties of arts and of medicine of the university, 
but which should be devoted entirely to applied science and to medi- 
cine, leaving the literary moiety of the arts faculty in St. Andrews. 

The universities (Scotland) act of 1889 gave a vague definition of 
" affiliation " as " such a connection between an existing university 
and a college as shall be entered into by their mutual consent, imder 
conditions approved * * * |^y ^j^^ universities committee." A 
college for the purpose was to be an institution of higher learning 
" established on a permanent footing and sufficiently endowed in the 
opinion of the universities committee." A permissive provision Avas 
suggested for the representation of the university court on the gov- 
erning bodies of affiliated colleges, and of the governing bodies of 
affiliated colleges in the university court, with the proviso of a limita- 
tion of the rights of the representatives to sit and vote on particular 
subjects. This plan of affiliation has never been carried out exactly 
in Scotland. 

Work done at institutions outside the universities is allowed to 
qualify for degrees. The university courts determine which insti- 
tutions are to obtain the privilege. They first inquire whether their 
work is up to university standard and require that the class fee shall 
be not less than that of the university. The university court retains 
the power to dissolve the connection. In Scotland this is not called 
affiliation but simply recognition of outside bodies. In England, 
Oxford and Cambridge have " affiliated colleges," " affiliated institu- 

iCf. p. 197. 



COORDINATION OF INSTITUTIONS. 203 

tions," and " approved universities." The relationship is established 
and dissolved by Oxford and Cambridge at will. 

The privileges of affiliation granted under conditions set forth by 
the two universities to members or graduates of affiliated institu- 
tions consist of exemptions from certain examinations and a shorten- 
ing of the term of residence at the university. The charters of the 
new English universities give them powers to affiliate colleges and 
institutions or parts thereof. The privileges and the conditions of 
affiliation are similar to those at Oxford and Cambridge, though gen- 
erally the ordinances of these universities add more specific require- 
ments. They demand that the majority of regular students in tte 
affiliated college are of the age of 16 years, that the university be 
represented on the body determining the courses of study submitted 
for approval by the university. They demand that the approved 
courses be equivalent to those of the university, the right of inspec- 
tion by the university, and its satisfaction as to the qualifications of 
the teachers conducting the approved courses. 

There is a slight but suggestive interrelation of all the English 
universities not constituting affiliation but a sympathetic reticulation. 
The charters of the new universities authorize the appointment of 
representatives upon other educational bodies. The older universities 
already had representatives upon numerous colleges, scheols, and 
committees. The new universities follow their example most ex- 
tensively.^ Reticulation underlies the coordination of the higher 
institutions and is an attempt to extend it to all educational bodies. 
It is a rising into consciousness of a subconscious national system not 
yet legally organized. 

The manifold experiments in coordination impress upon one sev- 
eral outstanding features. The value of educational unification has 
been learned to secure economy, efficiency, and power. It is an 
example of the modern movement toward cooperation and combina- 
tion in the business world. No institution can remain absolutely 
independent and isolated. There is a clear differentiation between 
the business world's and the educational world's application of " com- 
bination." The former, true to the idea of a university as a society 
of teachers and scholars, " a corporation not conducted for finan- 
cial profit," in any coordination of a geistlich corporation takes 
care not to commit it to a mere financial board of control, least of 
all a paid board. Indeed there is no case of the kind in education, 
high or low, in Great Britain. 

Financial unity is kept subsidiary to educational unity. The 
history and genius of each institution is respected. Representation 

* Leeds has representatives upon the courts of Bristol, of Liverpool, and of Sheffield ; 
all universities have representatives on the general medical council and various local 
education committees, schools, and the Workers' Educational Association. 



204 filGHfiH EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

is given to each one. Even in the closest coordination by financial 
incorporation, as in the proposed reconstituted University of London, 
the constituent bodies are represented in the supreme governing 
body and in the faculties in which they are concerned. In every 
case the faculty is represented. Coordination is effected in large 
districts having common interests corresponding to American States 
or great urban districts. The instances are Scotland, the empire 
of the north in England, Durham and Northumberland, and London. 
Mere affiliation does not conform to the above principles and 
practices. It may be an initial movement toward coordination. 
Generally it is an arm's length arrangement, sometimes reaching 
throughout the Empire and to foreign countries. It represents an 
emerging world-wide republic of letters. 



Chapter XIV. 
APPLIED SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 



The question whether applied science should have a place in 
the universities and colleges or in separate institutions has been 
settled in Great Britain by the incorporation of applied science 
in the teaching of every university and university college.^ This 
unanimity in practice has only been arrived at recently, and after 
the earlier development of powerful separate institutions. By the 
middle of the nineteenth century Newman had formulated the 
doctrine, which gained great acceptance, that a university was not 
to teach anything useful, though it involved him in inconsistency 
and difficulties in his embracing a college of medicine in his Irish 
university. At the same period the supposed antagonism between 
the classics and science made for separate institutions. The ex- 
ample of Germany in the establishment of its Technische Hoch- 
schulen^ apart from the unversities, with the right to confer the 
degree of " Doctor of Engineering Science " had its influence in 
the same direction. 

Huxley, the protagonist, in the seventies, of science yersus classics, 
enunciated the principle that applied science is essentially in the 
university sphere when he said : 

I often wish that this phrase " applied science " had never been invented. 
For it suggests that there is a sort of scientific linowledge of direct practical 
use, wliicli can be studied apart from another sort of scientilic knowledge 
which is of no practical utility and which is termed " pure science." But 
there is no more complete fallacy than this. What people call applied science 
is nothing but the application of pure science to particular classes of prob- 
lems. 2 

Despite the wish of Prof. Huxley, the phrase " applied science " 
was so apposite it gained increasing currency. Indeed, the occasion 
upon which he made the remark was due in part to the appeal of the 
phrase to the founder of Mason's Science College.^ In the coinci- 

1 Cf. Chs. VI, " Technical Colleges and Schools ;" XIII, •' Coordination of Institutions ;" 
I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," pp. 35-36. 

2 Address at the opening of the Mason Science College, Birmingham, Oct. 1, 1880 ; cf. 
The Proposed University of Birmingham, by Prof E. A. Sonnenschein, Nov. 15, 1898. 
For definition of " applied science," cf. Ch. IV, p. 126. 

•Mason, Josiah. A Biography, supra, p. 131. 

205 



206 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

dence of an age of science and an age of industry the phrase opened 
the purse of the captain of industry and pointed out the extending 
domain of the professor of science. Applied science emphasized the 
teaching of the principles rather than the practice of an art. In 
English usage it stands for instruction in higher education in a 
professional school on a par with those of the ancient professions. 
Technical and polytechnic schools are chiefly secondary schools 
emphasizing the art or practice and graded off in their elementary 
departments into trade schools. Applied science includes the train- 
ing of the engineer as the member of a profession; the technical 
school the training of the mechanic as an artisan.^ 

Only recently has the confusion of ideas and terms begun to clear 
itself up, and more especially in connection with the founding of the 
new English universities.- In the merging of Mason's Science Col- 
lege into the University of Birmingham, Prof. Sonnenschein pre- 
sented the idea : 

Let us then widen the terra " technical education " so as to include all those 
special studies which prepare men for earning their bread in a profession ; or, 
better, let us substitute a new term for it and speak of professional education 
and professional schools or colleges, which, being above tlie level of secondary 
school work, should be grouped around the faculties of a university and closely 
associated with them in government and teaching. 

Prof. Sonnenschein anticipated Avhat has since been realized, a 
modern university, broadened by the definition of technical educa- 
tion, consisting of a college of arts about which should be a group 
of pl'ofessional schools in education, commerce, agriculture, archi- 
tecture and the allied arts, sanitary science and hygiene, and applied 
science, as well as theology, law, and medicine. So rapidly was this 
ideal realized that the vice chancellor of the latest of the new 
universities at its opening declared that in Great Britain the modern 
universities recognized at least half a dozen new professions in 
addition to the four learned professions of teaching, of divinity, of 
law, and of medicine, embraced in the universities of the Middle 
Ages. The studies like agriculture and engineering have also made 
good their footing in Oxford and Cambridge. He contended that 
there was historic ground for embracing the study of all professions 
within the scope of a university, inasmuch as the medieval universi- 
ties " had always very practical ends in view," and prepared their 
students for the learned professions then existing.^ 

Speaking broadly the ancient professions have been considered as 
forms of applied science. In the modern applications of the physical 
and biological sciences to medicine this usage is quite evident. It 

1 Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London, pp. 91-92. 
* Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities." 
*Owen, Sir Isambard, supra, pp. 23, 24. 



APPLIED SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 207 

is not SO striking to the popular mind in the case of law and theology, 
unless one return to broader definitions like that of Bacon when he 
said, " Theology is the haven of all the sciences." Increasing appre- 
ciation of this definition, the tendencies to unification and the meth- 
ods of coordination of institutions, have enabled even secular univer- 
sities like London and Manchester to have faculties of theology, and 
to overcome the odium tlieologicwm and the difficulties of denomina- 
tionalism.^ Excepting London, all British universities which offer 
degrees in divinity rank the theological faculty as a sui^erior faculty. 
The fact that the faculties of theology, of law, and of medicine have 
always been accounted as superior faculties to the arts faculty, and 
in ordinary course the arts degree, preliminary to the professional 
degree, reinforces the notion that in the higher sense these are facul- 
ties of applied science. 

The guildlike organization of the professions of law, of medicine, 
and of theology, with power to set their own standards and to 
admit and to dismiss members independent of the State, has tended 
to subordinate the professor to the practitioner. They tended to 
limit their university faculties to the teaching not of principles 
but of practice. They set up their own schools independent of the 
universities. The new and still " open " professions have started to 
follow their example. We have the Institute of Civil Engineers, of 
Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers, and the Phar- 
maceutical Society of Great Britain, setting their own examinations 
and standards. 

The legal profession has retained complete control of legal educa- 
tion by its sole po'wer to license solicitors and admit to the bar 
through membership in the law societies and the Inns of Court, 
They make some concessions to holders of university degrees. The 
tendency to secure a more intimate relationship between the pro- 
fession and the universities is marked. There has long been an agita- 
tion, especially in London, for the university to gain a larger control 
of legal education, and in the Provinces the law society's subsidized 
local boards of legal studies tends to grow into the law school of 
the local university.^ 

In medicine 18 universities and certain professional colleges and 
societies are legally entitled to test candidates and to confer degrees 
or diplomas. On the face of it medical education would seem to be 
in the hands of the teaching bodies. In fact, it is controlled by the 
profession through the general medical council established by an 
act of Parliament of 1858 to distinguish qualified from unqualified 
practitioners. The medical profession is not like that of law, a 

iCf. Ch. IV, "The New or Provincial Universities," pp. 112-113. 

* Haaeltine, Harold D., "Legal education in England" (Reprint, Transactions of the 
American Bar Association, 1909), p. 891. Cf. Richards, H. S., "Legal educatioji iu 
Great Britain," Bulletin, United Stat«§ bureau ot E4ucs,tioQ. 



208 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

close corporation, having a monopoly of practice and protection 
against the competition of the untrained. The public are free to 
seek " medical aid " from the unqualified practitioner, who is only 
under certain disabilities in the use of titles and giving valid cer- 
tificates. The "qualified" men have official recognition, but are 
subjected to central educational and disciplinary control. They are 
" registered practitioners." The general medical council has of 
necessity grown into a council of education, a board of registration, 
and a court of medical conduct. It has become the determining 
influence in medical education, though — ■ 

" its powers only enable it to visit and inspect examinations, and to call for 
information as to tlie courses of studj ; it is not autliorized to prescribe or 
to amend either. It can not itself disallow an ' insufficient ' curriculum or 
an ' insufficient ' test ; it can only report its opinion to tbe privy council." ' 

The general medical council represents the State on behalf of the 
public through members appointed by the Crown, the medical pro- 
fession itself through members elected by the registered practitioners 
residing within the Kingdom, and the universities and bodies which 
educate and examine in medicine through members appointed by the 
several bodies. Thus the constitution of the general medical council 
interweaves happily the educational, professional, and public in- 
terests. 

Only recently has dentistry been admitted to be a profession and 
as a consequence the belief entertained that the university ought to 
train for it.- It is treated as a subsidiary branch of medicine and 
the instruction, when given in a university, committed not to a 
faculty but to a section of the medical faculty or to a department or 
school. 

The dentists' act (1878) provided for the registration of dentists 
by the general medical council and gives the council powers similar 
to those in the case of medical examinations of inspecting the exami- 
nations of the licensing authorities. It parallels for dentists the pro- 
visions for qualified medical practitioners. In view of the fact that 
the law does not prohibit any person from practicing dentistry, and 
that legally qualified medical practitioners may do so, it is reported 
that there are only about 3,000 qualified dentists, and perhaps from 
25,000 to 35,000 unqualified practitioners.^ In this state of the law the 
largest part of dental education is carried on outside the universities. 
As yet to secure students w^ho will prepare for the standards proper 
to a university degree, only five English universities are bold enough 
to lead the way by giving a degree in dentistry.* 

1 MacAlister, Donald, president of the Gen. Med. Council. " Introductory Address on 
the General Medical Council," Manchester, 1906, p. 13, passim. 
« Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," p. 114. 

* Final Rep. of Commission on Univ. Educ. in London, supra, pp. 141-145. 

* Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester. London only gives the post- 
graduate degree of M. S. in dental surgery. 



APPLIED SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 209 

In theology the licensing of the ministers is absolutely in the hands 
of the different churches. Theological education traditionally com- 
mitted to the universities, but by divisions in the church largely 
withdrawn and placed in church institutions, is again turning back 
to the universities. Among the tokens of the movement are the open- 
ing of the theological degrees at Cambridge to those who are not 
members of the Church of England, the agitation at Oxford to fol- 
low the example of Cambridge, and the formation of theological 
faculties, or the inclusion of theological subjects among those for 
the B. A. degree in secular universities. The theological faculties 
of Victoria University. Manchester, and of the University of London 
are notable successful experiments of securing the cooperation of 
different denominations in secular universities. The testimony is 
that a sectarian issue has never yet emerged in either of them.^ The 
day of the isolated theological school is passing. Twenty-eight out 
of thirty-six theological colleges of the Church of England are affili- 
ated to or located at the seat of a university.- There has been a 
series of removals of theological colleges to universit}^ centers, as in 
the case of Mansfield (Congregational) to Oxford, Westminister 
(Presbyterian) and Cheshunt (Countess of Huntingdon Connection) 
to Cambridge.^ 

The force of the centripetal movement that attracts professional 
education old and new to the universities may be judged by the 
prejudices and difficulties which have had to be overcome in theo- 
logical education. 

But the supreme triumph of the movement has been in the case of 
applied science, now attached to every university in Great Britain 
and Ireland and almost without exception throughout the universi- 
ties of the British dominions. In addition to the antagonism of an- 
cient classical institutions to the new scientific ones, and the force 
of the example of the separation of the technical hochschulen from 
the universities in Germany, were the establishment and endowment 
of technical schools by aroused commercial and industrial interests 
and by the distribution of public (whisky) money 1890 for technical 
education.^ The rapid development at the capital of wealth and 
of the Empire of the Royal College of Science into the Imperial 
College precipitated the question of making it an independent tech- 
nological universit}^ and the crown of the technological schools 

^ Garvie, Rev. Dr. Alfred E., " The Christian Churches, the Theological Colleges, and 
the National Universities," Contemporary Rev., Nov., 1913. 

2 Handbook of the Theological Colleges of the Church of England and the Episcopal 
Church in Scotland, Longmans, 1913. 

3 Cf. tables for universities giving theological instruction. 
*Cf. Ch. VI, "Technical Schools and Colleges." 

896S7°— Bull. 16—17 14 



210 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

throughout the country. This would have brought schism into the 
evolving national school system and led to overlapping of universi- 
ties in London, and would have contravened the historic idea of a 
university. After repeated investigations by commissions and de- 
partmental committees, this general notion has been rejected. It 
has been decided that the place of the Imperial College is in the one 
University of London.^ Applied science inseparable from pure 
science comes to its proper place in the sisterhood of professional 
schools in a university. According to Lord Kosebery, " This is 
one of the giant strides which has been made in university develop- 
ment during the last 30 years." - 

The teaching profession, the youngest of all outside the univer- 
sities, though one of the oldest in history, has just begun to organize 
itself by the formation of the Teachers' Registration Council some- 
what along the lines of the general medical council.^ 

The council announces: 

Tlie register itself is but the beginning of a movement to\Yar(l the pi'omotion 
of self-government and self-organization such as will place the work of teaching 
on a truly professional base. * * * Matters concerning salaries, pensions,* 
and conditions of work such as are of general interest to all teachers will in 
due course be considered. * * * It is anticipated also that the council will 
be able to organize systematic research into educational problems and so play 
an important part in the development of a true science of education. 

1 Final Report of the Commissioners, London, supra (cd. 6717), pp. 32, 83, 117. Cf. Ch. 
Ill, " University of London," pp. 78-79. 

2 " Address to the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, after the affiliation of the college 
with the university." The Times, Dec. 12, 1913. See Ch. XII, " State Aid and Visita- 
tion," p. 190 ; Oxford's receipt of Aid for Engineering Science. Cf. the combination of 
departments of engineering of Harvard, Mass., and Mass. Institute of Technology, which 
President Lowell said " constituted the most important movement toward the conserva- 
tion of educational forces that the country ever had known." N. Y. Times, Jan. 10, 1914. 

» Constituted by order of the council in 1912, under the Education (Administrative 
Provisions) Act ol 1907, and succeeding a conference of representatives of 37 associa- 
tions of teachers unanimously favoring the project. For a report of the conference 
and of the secretary of the board of education, cf. Parliamentary paper (Cd. 5726). 
Thus concluded a series of efforts to form a register of teachers beginning in the year 
1846. " The unification of the teaching profession " is aimed at by drawing the mem- 
bership from every form of teaching work. The council consists of 44 members, all of 
whom are teachers or have been teaching. The 11 universities in England and Wales 
and 42 associations of teachers are represented on the council, 11 members from each 
of the four groups — University teachers, elementary school teachers, secondary school 
teachers, technological and .specialist teachers. A certificate of registration renewable 
tvery 9 years may be issued upon the payment of one guinea to persons 25 years of age, 
meeting certain conditions as to attainments, training in teaching, and experience. The 
qualifications required to satisfy the condition of " attainments " are the degree or 
diploma of an approved university or other institution, or a certificate by the board of 
education, or of other approved examining body, and a course of study of three academic 
years of full-time day instruction or equivalent in subjects satisfactory to the board. 
Till 1921 " satisfactory experience alone " is required. Up to October, 1915, the total of 
applicants for registration was only about 12,000, out of perhaps 150,000 eligible to 
apply. The war and the withdrawal of some 8,270 teachers from school work to serve 
with the forces account in part for the slow registration. 

* Cf. Ch. XI, " Provisions for the Faculty," pp. 1S8-1S9. 



APPLIED SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 211 

If these ambitions of the council can be fulfilled, not only a 
profession of education will be organized on a par with the other 
professions, but also the now inchoate faculties of education in the 
universities and colleges will become full faculties. At present, Edin- 
burgh and Manchester excepted, there is no faculty of education in 
any university in the United Kingdom and no specific degree.^ This 
does not mean that the universities which have from the beginning 
prepared the masters for the " public schools " have not fallen in 
with the movement for the training of teachers, both elementary and 
secondary, at the university. As early as 1878 Cambridge appointed 
a teacher's training syndicate. Under its superintendence lectures 
are given and examinations are held by the university in the theory, 
history, and practice of education, including method, school manage- 
ment, and practical teaching. The test for practical efficiency re- 
quires training for at least a year in some training college inspected 
and recognized by the syndicate or teaching for a year in a school 
recognized for the purpose.^ In 1891 Cambridge took a forw^ard step 
by opening a training college for schoolmasters in a primary depart- 
ment. A three years' course calling for hard training in a combina- 
tion of certain university studies and professional training leads to 
the B. A. degree. Cambridge asserts that " the testimony of 20 years 
is decidedly encouraging" in this attempt to bring university-trained 
schoolmasters into the elementary schools. 

In 1892 Oxford also established a delegacy to encourage the train- 
ing at the university of teachers in the public elementary schools. 
Students entering in 1912 and thereafter will have a course of four 
years, the fourth year devoted wholly to professional training. 

In 1898 Cambridge established a department of secondary train- 
ing for which Oxford now also provides. 

The Scotch universities^ without faculties or specific degrees in 
education, by means of a professorship or lectureship in education, 
and by cooperation with the provincial committees for the training 
of teachers, provide a four years' course, so arranged that the first 
three years may be given almost wholly to university work and the 
last year to professional training. 

Even the new English universities, excepting Manchester, have no 
faculties or degrees in education, but have strong departments of 

1 Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," p. 115. A Conference of Repre- 
sentatives of the General Councils of the Universities of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edin- 
burgh, Oct., 1915, " was of opinion that a faculty of education should be established in 
each university," that a postgraduate professional degree in education — bachelor of edu- 
cation — should be instituted, and also a doctorate in education. Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Uni- 
versities," pp. 64—65. 

2 At present some 30 training colleges are recognized. 

* Edinburgh has just established a faculty of education and the degree B. Educ. 



212 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

education and are in cooperation with the board of education and 
training colleges/ This is true also of the University of London.^ 

It is obvious that the universities, the original home of the teach- 
ing profession, tend with the more distinct differentiation of profes- 
sions to set up a " superior faculty " of education and to embrace a 
professional school of education among the schools of other profes- 
sions. There is confirmation for the practice, increasing in the 
United States, of arts colleges including departments of education 
with their professional work for arts degrees. The inclusion of the 
training of elementary as well as secondary teachers to give the 
touch of the university to all grades of the profession, the close 
alliance of the university with a certificating board of education, 
and the affiliation of the separate training colleges foreshadow the 
disappearance in this as in the other professions of the isolated 
school. The indication is that the place of a normal school or college 
is in a school system culminating not in it, but in a university.^ 

The other partially organized professions, like the fine arts, music, 
and journalism,* with the rare exception of music, have no formal 
faculty. Their principles and history have found a place as a branch 
of university study in the faculty of arts, but their technique has 
been left to recognized teachers and affiliated organizations. Oxford, 
Cambridge, and London have always awarded degrees in music, but 
no faculty of music has survived except a nominal one in London. 
The latter the commission recommend shall be dissolved as unneces- 
sary so long as the teaching of music is in the hands of " recognized " 
teachers in the several strong musical colleges in London.'' The de- 
grees are to be continued as '' external " degrees. In Scotland, only 
Edinburgh has a faculty of music and a chair of fine art. In the 
new English universities only Manchester has a faculty of music 
and Birmingham a chair. In general the universities acknowledge 
fine art and music as susceptible of being academic disciplines and 
worthy of recognition either for a B. A. or specific degree. The in- 
struction is given chiefly in the arts faculty and the executant work 

1 Cf. Ch. IV, "New or Provincial Universities," p. 124. 

2 Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London," pp. 86-87. 

^ Cf. Cti. II, "Scotch Universities," p. 49; also cf. Smith, J. C, Chief Inspector, Report 
(1912-13) Training of Teachers (Scotland), Wyman & Sons, London, 1914, p. 3; 1st 
Normal Coll. Dundas Vale, Glasgow, 1834 ; by 1887 the churches had 8 training colleges, 
but closer connection with universities after 1873, when abler students of training 
colleges were encouraged to attend universities, and 1887-88 leaving certificate stimu- 
lated demand for higher education and training period extended ; universities also asked 
why not undertake whole training ; 1895 local committees for training created and in 
1905 reconstituted in four provincial committees with representatives of universities of 
central institutions on university level and of churches where they were concerned ; 
and university course extended from three to four .years. 

* Cf. Ch. IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," p. 118. 

tiRep., supra, pp. 150-152, 181. 



APPLIED SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 213 

in affiliated institutions. A university without opportunity for the 
study of fine art and music is exceptional and excuses its short- 
coming because of lack of funds. 

The thesis stands that applied science, as contradistinguished from 
mechanic arts, belongs in a university as one of its professional 
schools, and that all the professions, old and new, look to the univer- 
sities as the center for professional or advanced instruction in the 
science of the profession which is to be supplemented by gaining the 
art of the profession in practice regulated by the organized pro- 
fession. 



Chapter XV. 

ADVANCED STUDY AND RESEARCH WITHOUT QRADU= 

ATE SCHOOLS. 



From the seventeenth century onward the British universities were 
absorbed in teaching imdergradiiates. So completely was the func- 
tion of a university to advance knowledge lost sight of that re- 
search was not mentioned among the 12 points of reform for Oxford, 
urged by Sir William Hamilton in the Edinburgh Review (1831- 
1836). The report of the commission of 1850 did not dwell upon the 
subject. But, beginning with Bonamy Price in 1850, there has been 
a line of advocates of the promotion of research as a first duty of a 
university.^ Among them are no less names than those of Matthew 
Arnold, Mark Pattison, and Jowett. By 1877 the universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge act plans for provisions for " the doing of 
work or the conducting of investigations within the imiversity." 
Outside academic circles, the demand has been constant and increas- 
ing that the universities should make contributions in the field of 
research, especially as related to the industries, in view of the rising 
competition of Germany and the United States and the example 
of their universities.^ The war has intensified this appeal, and deep- 
ened the conviction of the universities and the Nation in the pursuit 
of this policy. 

In the face of current criticism on the insufficient provision for 
advanced study and research, one is happily disappointed by what 
has been attempted or accomplished as shown by a mere glance at 
some of the facts. All the universities now make a feature of an- 
nouncing the opportunities they offer for advancing study and re- 
search. Oxford and Cambridge include entire chapters upon the 
subject in their handbooks. In 1896 Cambridge established courses 
of advanced study and research and made it possible for the grad- 
uates of other universities to proceed to the Cambridge B. A. or 
LL. B. In 1912 the statute substituted the term " research student " 
for " advanced student " and broadened the terms for admission 



1 Price, Bonamy, " Suggestions for the Extension of Professorial Teaching In the 
University of Oxford, 1850" ; cf. Tillyard, supra, pp. 86-92, 175-179, 260, 336 ; cf. Cur- 
zon, " Principles, etc.," supra, Ch. IX, " Encouragement of Research." 

2 Cf. Loclsyer, supra, pp. 5-13, " The endowment of research, 1873" ; cf. Ch. VI, 
• Technical Colleges and Schools," and Ch. XIV, " Applied Science and Professional 
Education." 

214 



STUDY AND RESEARCH WITHOUt GRADUAtE SCHOOLS. 2l5 

for such students. A research student, ordinarily a college grad- 
uate, may receive a " certificate of research " after three terms of 
residence and the acceptance by the degree committee of a disser- 
tation upon the research done by him in the university. A student 
who has obtained a certificate of research and has been in residence 
at least six terms may proceed to the degree of B. A. or LL. B., 
and thereafter in course to the degree of M. A. or other advanced 
degrees. 

In 1895 Oxford instituted the degrees of bachelor of letters (B. 
Litt.) and B. Sc. to encourage special study and research among 
both its own graduates and other students likely to pursue advanced 
studies with profit. Not less than eight terms of residence are re- 
quired. Unlike degrees in arts, these degrees do not make one eli- 
gible to share in the government of the university by membership in 
convocation. In 1900 the university further instituted the higher 
degrees of doctor of letters and doctor of science, awarded for pub- 
lished work containing an original contribution to knowledge. Out 
of 1,241 other degrees than honorary conferred in 1912-13 the total 
number of these research degrees was only 23. It is not fair, how- 
ever, to gauge the extent of special study and research by these de- 
grees. Many of the final honors schools for the B. A. involve spe- 
cial and advanced studies, and this is also true in the examinations 
for degrees in law and in medicine. Again, special and advanced lec- 
tures are accounted one of the most distinctive features of Oxford 
teaching. Comparatively recently courses leading to diplomas or 
certificates have been introduced, with the general object of pro- 
viding for special lines of study supplementary to the ordinary 
curriculum for the B. A. or B. M. degrees.^ 

Both Cambridge and Oxford offer ample opportunities for re- 
search, on account of the specialists in their own subjects among the 
teachers as well as the libraries, the laboratories, and the museums. 
A university policy of research has slowly developed at Oxford 
and Cambridge since the commissioners' statutes of 1882 provided 
for a number of college fellowships specially allotted to advance 
study or research. They were intended chiefly as prizes for excel- 
lence in scholarship. Any graduate of Cambridge or Oxford is 
eligible for election. The yearly income of a fellowship is not less 
than $1,000 and certain perquisites. In ordinary cases the tenure is 
six or seven years, and the holders are under no obligation to serve 
their colleges or even to be in residence. For financial reasons the 
number of " prize " fellowships has rarely exceeded 20 at Oxford. 

^ At present diplomas or certificates are given for a course extending over a year or 
more in geography, education, economics and political science, mining and engineering, 
anthropology, forestry, classical archaeology, rural economy, public health, and ophthal 
Biology. 



216 HIGHER EDUCATION" IN" ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Some colleges have established research fellowships, tenable on con- 
dition of the fellow prosecuting some definite scientific or literary 
work, the prize fellowships not having been particularly fruitful.^ 

Both universities, largely through recent private munificence, have 
founded university scholarships, usually open only to graduates, in 
contradistinction to the numerous college scholarships for under- 
graduates. Oxford has about 50 of these scholarships, of the aggre- 
gate annual value of about $21,150, and Cambridge about 57, of the 
value of about $28,000. Each university has also a number of 
valuable prizes for graduate work. 

The relatively small proportion of graduates to undergraduates 
pursuing studies at the old universities ought not to be taken as a 
measure of the progress in them of the university policy of research. 
The specialization possible and the advanced work offered in the 
honors schools, commonly occupying a fourth year of study, in addi- 
tion to the three years for the ordinary B. A. degree, and the fact 
that the M. A. degree does not require further scholastic work or 
residence, added to the tradition that culture and not investigation 
is the object of the university, must be taken into account. 

In Scotland the universities commission of 1889 adopted regula- 
tions for the encouragement of special study and research and for 
the appointment of research fellows. Accordingly, the four uni- 
versities admit as research students graduates of Scottish or of 
other universities or persons not graduates who give evidence of 
fitness to engage in some special study or research. The title of 
research fellow may be conferred with or without a stipend on spe- 
cially distinguished students. The number of these students has been 
inconsiderable.- 

The four universities have over 170 scholarships for graduates, 
of an approximate aggregate value per annum of $65,000.-^ These 
scholarships have practically been given within the last 50 years and 
are administered by each university chiefly for its own graduates. 
There are also several scholarship endoAvment funds open to the 
graduates of any of the Scottish universities, not including the 
Earl of Moray endowment for the promotion of original research* 
at Edinburgh, and the munificent research scheme of the Carnegie 
trust. The latter alone in 1913-14 awarded 152 research fellowships, 
scholarships, and grants, worth $50,885.^ In addition, the trust 

» Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge. Durham," pp. 31-32. 

*E. g., Glasgow, 1913-14, 20 students. 

» St. Andrews about 22 scholarships, of about $7,000 ; Glasgow about 58, of about 
$21,500 : Aberdeen about 23, of $8,000 ; Edinburgh about 70, of $30,000. 

*The available annual income about $3,900. 

5 In the distribution of awards over the four university centers St. Andrews received 3 
fellowships, 10 scholarships, and 13 grants, worth $9,095 ; Glasgow, 7 fellowships, 8 
scholarships, 32 grants, worth $13,550 ; Aberdeen, 3 fellowships, 9 scholarships, 21 
grants," worth $10,610 ; Edinburgh, 7 fellowships, 14 scholarships, 25 grants, worth 
$17,630. Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 51. 



STUDY AND RESEARCH WITHOUT GRADUATE SCHOOLS. 217 

decided in 1914 to offer an annual essay prize of $500 for competition 
among graduates of the universities who have not been fellows under 
the trust, to encourage postgraduate study and research within the 
departments of history, of modern languages, and of literature. 

The Scottish universities also have stimulated graduate work by 
advanced degrees, though there are anomalies in the titles, due in 
part to the fact that the M. A. is conferred as a first degree. The 
bachelor of divinity is a second degree to which an M, A. is a pre- 
requisite, and residential graduate w^ork is required, nor can it be 
conferred honoris causa tantum. 

The first medical degrees are bachelor of medicine (M. B.) and 
bachelor of surgery (Ch. B,), and these must be taken together. 
The second degree is that of doctor of medicine (M. D.) or master 
of surgery (Ch. M.), as the case may be, requiring not less than one 
or two years of graduate study or practice, and the passing of pre- 
scribed examination and submission of a satisfactory thesis. After 
1908 the universities offered higher degrees in arts and science and 
forbade the giving of them honoris causa tantuin. The degrees 
were doctor of science (D. Sc), doctor of philosophy (D. Phil.), 
and doctor of literature (D. Litt.). They are open to graduates 
with honors of not less than five years' standing in Scotch or rec- 
ognized universities. In case the graduate is a " research student," 
he must spend two terms in each of two years in the university in 
satisfactory work. All candidates must present a thesis recording 
original research. In lieu of a thesis, an engineer may present an 
original design of work which has been executed. The number of 
advanced degrees conferred by the four universities is very small, 
but increasing in medicine and science. 

All the charters of the six new English universities specify that 
the university shall further the prosecution of original research in 
all its branches. Therefore, these institutions from the beginning 
have laid great stress upon research and graduate work. They have 
secured endowments for research professors and schools, like the 
professorship of biochemistry in Liverpool and the school of tropical 
medicine.^ It is expected that the spirit of inquiry will be en- 
couraged in all departments by teachers who are contributing pub- 
lications in research. These universities make a point of reporting 
separately the number of students taking "postgraduate" courses. 
Beginning with the M. A., they have made the higher degrees not 
merely nominal or honorary. The master of arts must be a bachelor 
of the university of one year's standing who has graduated with 
honors in arts, or passed a prescribed examination, or presented 
a satisfactory thesis. They have instituted master's research de- 

^Cf. Ch. IV, "The New or Provincial Universities." pp. 120-121. 



218 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

grees for those who have passed degree examinations of approved 
universities when they have conducted research in the university 
for at least two years. They even admit candidates who have not 
passed degree examinations if the senate is satisfied that they have 
sufficient education to carry on successful research for three years. 

The Litt. D., LL. D., and D. Sc, are conferred on graduates of 
not less than four years' standing who give sufficient evidence of 
conducting orignal research. Research students are allowed the 
use of special laboratories at a reduced fee. There are numerous 
research fellowships, studentships, and scholarships for advanced 
study. The University of Bristol is even offering a research B. A. 
or B. Sc. degree for three years of original research in lieu of the 
pursuit of a curriculum. Herein Bristol is following the example 
of London, which offers the B. Sc. degree to be taken "by research "" 
by internal students. Indeed, the University of London offers great 
opportunities for postgraduate study and research through its 
numerous schools and institutions. External graduates, graduates 
of other approved universities, and persons who have passed ex- 
aminations equivalent to those required for a degree may enter as 
internal students for the degree of M. A. and for the degree of 
doctor in the several faculties. The course of study for these 
students covers at least two years.^ 

In addition to the several research institutions like the physiological 
laboratory,^ or the Lister institute of preventive medicine, the in- 
corporated colleges and schools of the university encourage research 
in all departments. The university requires the provision of facili- 
ties for advanced work and research wherever it appoints a teacher 
as a university professor or reader. Recently the university has 
received a number of funds for the promotion of research.^ 

The university has hardly a dozen scholarships and studentships 
open to graduates; nevertheless, the colleges and schools of the uni- 
versity impregnated by the spirit of the university had about 1,359 
postgraduate students enrolled in 1913-14. 

The place of graduate work and research in a university has been 
studied afresh by the commission on imiversity education in London 
(1913). In the hearings before the commission all sides of the 
question were presented. There were advocates of a " super- 
university." They called " the true university work not that of 
undertaking teaching up to the bachelor stage, but of advancing 
research and higher learning." They proposed a series of institutes 
under control of the university, grouped round the headquarters of 

1 In July, 1913, there were some 90 such students. 
» Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London," pp. 85-86. 

3 Charles Graham medical research fund ; Dixon fund for scientific investigation ; the 
Katan Tata fund. 



STUDY AND RESEARCH WITHOUT GRADUATE SCHOOLS. 219 

the university, but detached from the different colleges. The advo- 
cates of this proposal had a special motive of extending the external 
side of the university. They made two admissions well-nigh fatal 
to their theory. When they said " the teaching up to the stage of 
the bachelor's degree in most subjects may be very well left " to 
the colleges, and they were not able to say all subjects, they admit 
there can be no clear cleavage between the college and the university. 
They made a more damaging admission in saying — 

it is most essential that teaching should not be divorced from research, and 
that in every school of the university the teachers and students should be 
actively encouraged not only to promulgate what is at present known in their 
subject, but also to extend the bounds of knowledge.' 

The commission summarizes its conclusions against proposals 
which tend to break up a close association of undergraduate and 
postgraduate work as follows: 

A hard and fast line between the two is disadvantageous to the under- 
graduates and diminishes the number who go on to advanced work. The 
most distinguislied teachers must take their part in undei'graduate teaching, 
and their spirit should dominate it all. The main advantage to the student 
is the personal influence of men of original mind. The main advantage 
to the teachers is that they select their students for advanced work from 
a wider range, train them in their own methods, and are stimulated by 
association with them. Free intercourse with advanced students is inspir- 
ing and encouraging to undergraduates. The influence of the university as 
a whole upon teachers and students and upon all departments of work within 
it is lost if the higher work is separated from the lower. Advanced instruction 
of a specialized kind must be provided for occasional st»dents who are already 
engaged in a profession or calling. 

Caution is given against making all kinds of research of equal 
value. Research students must have the wider point of view of a lib- 
eral education. Research professors need a sympathetic relation to 
other branches of knowledge and must be kept to a just appreciation 
of the limitations as well as the possibilities of their own specialty, 
" The establishment of research professorships eo nomine would pro- 
duce the impression that other professors would not be expected to 
make additions to knowledge." 

The fact that no British university has organized a graduate fac- 
ulty despite their recent interest in and study of the organization 
of research brings home to one the uniqueness of the American con- 
stitution of graduate schools and incipient superuniversities. To 
be sure one has to take into account the British absence of a hori- 
zontal grading or stratification of education. Theirs is a system of 
overlapping, or better, of interlocking, of all the grades, primary, 
secondary, collegiate, and university. It represents a growth. The 

1 Commission Rep., supra, pp. 28-30, 86, 72. Cf. Ch. Ill, " University of London," 
pp. 91-92. 



220 HIGHER EDUCATlOlsr IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. . 

connections are more vital and less mechanical than the American 
system. It would therefore be unnatural for them to segregate 
graduate work. Nevei-theless, one raises the query if the more or 
less artificial system of American grades has not been carried too 
far in superimposing upon the colleges a kind of superlative graded 
school, albeit a large amount of the graduate school curriculum is 
offered to undergraduates.^ The British plan of encouraging ad- 
vanced studies, and giving opportunity for specialization in their 
•' honor schools," and their quasi-combined undergraduate and pro- 
fessional courses, disseminates the research spirit through the entire 
student body. "The superior faculties" — the strictly graduate fac- 
ulties — are not pushed on one side as merely professional faculties, 
but are infiltrated with the same spirit in conjunction with the arts 
faculty. 

There has been a rapidly rising appreciation of the need and 
value of research by the British Government. A few illustrations 
will show the Government's increased utilization of experts and 
grants in aid of research. First among these comes the royal com- 
mission for the exhibition of 1851, among whose many activities is 
the institution of their scheme of science research scholarships.^ 
The Government committed itself anew to subsidies to investigation 
and research in the development and road improvement funds act 
of 1909, guaranteeing to the fund $14,500,000 for the period up to 
the end of the financial year 1914—15. The development commission 
has granted large sums to the universities and colleges for the initia- 
tion or assistance of schemes of agricultural and other economic 
instruction and research. The commission has recommended a con- 
tinuation of the fund.^ 

Under the national insurance act (1911) in 1913 an annual grant 
of about $285,000 became available for research. A medical research 
committee with executive functions was appointed for the purpose 
of dealing w ith the money. Also, an advisory council was appointed 
upon nomination of distinguished specialists, and by each of the uni- 
versities and other learned bodies. The duty of the advisory council 
is to make recommendations to the minister responsible for national 
health insurance before he gives his final assent to the medical re- 

^ Cf. " There is, however, no other division of American university work that has in 
the past been less sincere and more open to criticism than the so-called graduate schools. 
It has been assumed that no research work could be done unless there was a formal 
graduate school, whereas, if research comes at all, it grows naturally out of the work 
of teacher and student." " Education in Vermont," Carnegie Foundation, Bulletin No. 7, 
1914, p. 204. 

2 The scholarships of the value of $750 per annum are ordinarily tenable for two 
years. The scholars are appointed from graduates upon nomination by universities 
in the Empire ; 20 were appointed in 1913. 

^ The grants to colleges and institutions in aid of research, investigation, and scholar- 
ships in 1914-15 were $234,825. Cf. Report Development Commissioners, 1914, pp. 
8, 55-57. 



STUDY AND RESEARCH WITHOUT GRADUATE SCHOOLS. 221 

search committee's scheme for any year. They report upon the 
various kinds of research work going on in the diiferent parts of 
the Empire, in America, and in foreign countries. They make sug- 
gestions upon the general scope of the research work to be undertaken 
under the committee's scheme. In 1914 the parliamentary budget 
contained a scheme for establishing in such available centers as the 
county towns special departments, where the panel doctor should 
have it in his power to command any specialist's services that he 
needed. These would be scientific centers to help and stimulate the 
practitioner in research. The example of Cambridge in establishing 
the first research hospital in Britain is being followed by the com- 
mittee of national research in setting up a research hospital, and 
also by the establishment of research wards in some of the great 
London hospitals. Eecently the prominence of research as a function 
of the hospital has been much dwelt upon. Just before the war 
Mr. Balfour alluded to the happy rivalry for the furtherance of 
knowledge by researchers in all countries, and, as yet unenlightened 
by the war, added, "A rivalry far happier than that in armaments, 
but, he sometimes thought, hardly less expensive." ^ 

Following the analogy of the advisory committee on aeronautics, 
established in 1909, and their research work carried out at the na- 
tional physical laboratory, Cambridge, a committee appointed by 
the postmaster general reported, in 1914, in favor of the establish- 
ment of a national committee for telegraphic research and a national 
research laboratory.^ 

AVithout anticipation of the outbreak of the Avar, in the first half 
of 1914, there was a discussion by some 40 distinguished educators 
and public men of the duty of the State to encourage and reward re- 
search more effectively and generously.^ There were different opin- 
ions as to the form that State encouragement should assume. Many 
correspondents believed that successive governments were apathetic 
and that it was hopeless that any of the schemes proposed would 
receive at present effective Government aid. Dr. Farnell asserted 
that : 

This apathy toward discovery and research, which is more marlved in our 
country than in Germany, France, or the United States, is a vice of our national 
(British) temperament, due to a faulty educational system, and the blame 
attaches to all our educational institutions from the primary school to the 
highest university.* 

He prophesied that this apathy would tend to disappear with the 
realization of how profoundly it threatens the national position. 

1 Balfour, Hon. A. J., "Address at Guy's Hospital," The Times, June 4, 1913 ; Cf., 
.A^lbutt, Sir. T. Clifford, "Address, St. Thomas's Hospital," Morning Post, July 1, 1914. 

2 •' White Paper" (Cd. 7428), The Times, June 9, 1914. 

' Cf. series of letters on " Science and the State " in the Morning Post, beginning 
May 25, 1914, with a letter from Provost T. Gregory Foster, Ph. D. 

* Farnell, L. R., D. Litt., Rector, Exeter College, Ctford, Morning Post, June 26, 1914. 



222 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The war has already brought a fulfillment of the prophecy, as the 
plan of the minister of education mentioned below will show. Dr. 
Farnell's cure was to indoctrinate collegians and all teachers with 
respect for discovery and research and to impregnate the mass of 
citizens with such respect. 

Mr. Pease, then minister of education, in presenting to the House 
of Commons in May, 1915, the estimates for the board of education, 
and in asking additional grants in the midst of war grants, said: 

The war has brought home the realization that it is essential, if Britain is to 
maintain its position in the world, to create careers for scientific men, to asso- 
ciate industry closely with them, and to promote a proper system of encour- 
agement of research workers, especially in the universities/ 

He proposed the appointment at once of an advisory council on 
industrial research, a committee of experts to consult with other 
expert committees, consisting of leaders of industries and advisers 
possessing knowledge in connection with pure science and science 
applied to industry. The council will have to advise as to the way 
in which a sum of about $150,000 in the estimates for the current 
year should be spent in training and research work and its distribu- 
tion among institutions. Mr. Pease anticipated that this compara- 
tively small sum will have to be " enormously increased " in future 
years by the State. 

Government action is reenforced by conferences of representative 
leaders of industry and of science, both in the Island and the colo- 
nies, pleading for closer cooperation of science, industry, and 
finance.^ 

The half century's slow progress in the promotion of research in 
Britain and in the encouragement of it by the State and nation has 
been brought to a head by the war, with happy auspices for the 
future. Above the din of battle and the sound of marching hosts 
the insistent voice of education calls throughout the land, and 
"Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war." 

* " Scheme for the organization and development of scientific and industrial research " 
(White Paper, July, 1915, board of education, of. The Times, July 27, 28, 1915). New 
parliamentary grants for the purpose are to be administered by a committee of the 
Privy Council, aided by an advisory council composed of scientific men and men engaged 
In industries dependent upon scientific research. The advisory committee is to act in 
cooperation with the royal and other societies as well as with universities and technical 
institutions. The scheme is received cordially everywhere, but in some quarters there 
is criticism that the administration is committed to the Privy Council and not to the 
board of education. 

* The Times, Mar. 25, 1915, " Chemists in Industry." 



Chapter XVI. 

EXAMINATIONS. 



A strong and rising tide is running against the examination sys- 
tems deA^eloped and multiplied in the nineteenth century. The re- 
constitution of the University of London in 1900, by which it ceased 
to be merely an examining board and began to be a teaching body, 
marked the turning of the tide.^ Its height may be estimated by 
the conviction of the commission for the same institution in 1913 
that the external examination is " inconsistent Avith the true interests 
of university education, injurious to the students, degrading to the 
teachers, and ineffective for the attainment of the ends " it is sup- 
posed to promote. The commission does not stop with writing this 
of a purely external examination conducted by examiners who have 
nothing to do with the instruction of the candidates and who have 
nothing to go on but the syllabus prescribed for the course of instruc- 
tion. It adds: 

Even the so-called internal examinations of the University of London are 
practically external, because of the large number of institutions involved and 
the demands of the common syllabus. A system of external examinations is 
always based upon want of faith in the teachers. 

The remedy proposed is the appointment of teachers who can be 
trusted with the charge of university education and to dispense with 
the necessity of the syllabus. The commission goes further in say- 
ing that examination should not be the sole test for a degree and that 
due weight should be given to the whole record of the student's work 
in the university: "It is absolutely necessary that, subject to proper 
safeguards, the degrees of the university should practically be the 
certificates given by the professors themselves." This is a position 
which contravenes the universal practice of British universities to 
give degrees upon the passing of three examinations — entrance, in- 
termediate, and final — qualified by certain residential requirements 
and conducted by a board of examiners, apart from or in conjunc- 
tion with the teachers of the candidates. The proposition is a move 
in the direction of the American practice of the award of degrees by 
the teacher on the candidate's whole record, and is one with which 

1 Cf. Chs. Ill, " University ot London," pp. 68-69, 92-93 ; IV, " The New or Pro- 
vincial Universities," p. 107. 

223 



224 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

there is much sympathy among the teachers in the " public " and 
secondary schools and professors, especially in the new English uni- 
versities. These universities occupy a halfway house. As a relic of 
their conflict in 1902 to meet the objection to " one-college " uni- 
versities and " one-man " degrees, they provide that " every examina- 
tion shall include an external examiner, not associated Avith the 
university, for each subject or group of subjects with which the 
examination is concerned." ^ 

At this moment the culmination seems to be approaching of long 
study of external examinations in secondary schools in England 
and of university entrance examinations. The matter has been 
brought to a head by circular " 849 " of the board of education to 
local education authorities and secondary schools, issued in July, 
1914.2 jj^ making their proposals tentatively the board invited criti- 
cism and suggestion, which have become a feature in the educational 
publications of 1915. The circular is the outcome of correspondence 
and conference during two years Avith all the English universities 
and educational associations concerned. In its main features it is 
framed upon principles laid down in the report of the board's 
consultative committee in 1911 on examinations in secondary schools.^ 
This classic report upon the subject does not lose sight of the 
broader aspects of examinations as a whole in their influence upon 
the universities, the professions, and the Government service. The 
inauguration of the competitive system of examinations all along 
the line, principally during the decade 1850-1860, and its spread to 
the present evils is traced. The number of examining bodies and 
their independence of one another have introduced a multiplicity 
of separate examinations in secondary schools, conducted by the 
more numerically important bodies, estimated at nearly 90, which 
examine. 

Circular " 849 " proposes an annual examination of grant-earning 
schools by one or more of the university examining bodies, chosen 
by the school and approved by the board. Provision for two exam- 
inations is suggested, and certificates in accordance therewith. The 
first will be suitable for " forms " in which the average age of the 
pupil ranges from about 16 years to 16 years 8 months. The exam- 
ination will be designed to test the results of the course of general 
education, and will correspond to the present school certificate 
examinations of the universities. The subjects for examination 
will be treated as falling into three main groups — English subjects, 

* A suggestion for a small American college. Of. case of Tniv. Coll. Liverpool in 
Privy Council, Dec. 17-19, 1902. 

sprinted in "The Educational Times and Journal of the College of Preceptors," 
Feb. 1, 1915, pp. 52-53. 

3 Board of education (Cd. 6014). 



EXAMINATIONS. 225 

languages, science and mathematics. The candidate will be expected 
to show a reasonable amount of attainment in each of these groups, 
and will be judged by this test rather than by his power to pass in 
a required number of specified subjects. The "form," and not the 
pupil, will be the unit for examination. In order that the certifi- 
cate shall be accepted for the purpose of matriculation, a mark of 
credit will be assigned to those candidates who in any specific sub- 
ject attain a standard which would be appreciably higher than 
that required for a simple pass. The board hope that the reorgan- 
ization of the school examinations will facilitate the organization of 
the conditions of admission to the universities and the professions. 
In addition to the three main groups of subjects which form a gen- 
eral course, a fourth group, including music, drawing, manual work, 
and housecraft, may be recognized by indorsement on any certificate 
awarded to those who are successful in the main examination. 

The second examination will be designed for those who have con- 
tinued their studies for about two years after the stnge marked by 
the first examination. It will be based on the view that the school 
course should in these two years provide for more concentrated study 
in three main groups, classics and ancient history, modern humanis- 
tic studies, science and mathematics. The candidate will be required 
to offer one group as a whole and at least one subsidiary subject. 
Only those schools will be able to take the second examination which 
have an organized course of about two years beyond the stage marked 
by the first examination. The two examinations will be accessible 
to all candidates under 19 years of age, whatever their previous 
education. It is proposed to bring teachers into touch with the ex- 
amining bodies, by representation on the examining body, or by 
some system of consultation by giving them the right to submit 
their own syllabuses, and by submission to the examining body of 
an estimate of the relative merits of the candidate in each subject 
offered for examination. 

In view of the number of examining bodies it is proposed that 
the board of education shall be a coordinating authority to deter- 
mine minimum and equivalent standards in examinations and fees, 
and to initiate conferences of the examining bodies. It is explicitly 
provided, however, that the board of education shall only exercise 
this authority after report from and with the assistance of an ad- 
visory committee composed of a representative of each approved 
examining body, of local education authorities, and of the teachers' 
registration council. 

A certificate of success in the examinations will not be issued 
before the candidate attains the age of 16 years. In the case he is 
of a school on the board's list of secondary schools, the certificate 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 15 



226 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

will not be issued until he has completed a course of three years and 
until he leaves the school. 

The examination is to be submitted from a school found to be 
efficient on an inspection by the board embracing all its activities. 
Arrangements are to be made for the closest cooperation between the 
board's inspectors, both the examining bodies, and the advisory com- 
mittee. 

Circular 849 indicates a distinct movement in the direction of the 
Scotch education department's methods and its leaving certificate 
examination. The department inspects the schools, sets and super- 
vises the examinations, and issues certificates under conditions some 
of which are strongly reflected in Circular 849. 

An intermediate certificate is given — 

To testify to the conclusion of a well-balanced course of general education, 
suitable for pupils who leave school at 15 or 16 years of age, or, alternatively, 
to the fitness for entry on more specialized courses of post-intermediate study 
of such pupils as remain at school till 17 or 18/ 

The intermediate course must extend over not less than three years. 
It must be an approved course, as a rule, providing for instruction 
in at least five subjects, embracing English (including history and 
geography), a language other than English, mathematics, experi- 
mental science, and drawing. 

The leaving certificate is awarded on the satisfactory completion 
of a course, as a rule of not less than two years' duration, of post- 
intermediate study approved by the department. The curriculum is 
expected to provide for the continuous study throughout the course 
of not less than four subjects, one of which must be English on the 
higher-grade level, together with a subsidiary study of history (not 
reckoned as a separate subject). The normal general course in- 
cludes one language other than English, as well as either mathe- 
matics or experimental science studied on the higher grade level. 
The remaining subject or subjects without restriction as to grade 
may be chosen from a list of electives which include drawing, 
music, and domestic science. 

F'or both certificates excellence in one branch may be held as com- 
pensating for some degree of deficiency in another. No certificate is 
awarded without full consideration of the opinion of the teachers 
as to the proficiency of the pupil in his various subjects, and the 
deliberate judgment of the headmaster as to the candidate's claim 
for a certificate on the whole range of his work. 

The significance of the Scotch education department's leaving cer- 
tificate examination is rapidly increasing. It is largely supplanting 
the preliminary examination as a means of entrance to the Scotch 

1 Scotch Education Department, Circ. 340, July 7, 1913, 



EXAMINATIONS. 227 

universities. Of the 902 new applicants accepted by the Carnegie 
trust for the winter session 1913-14, in their first year of university 
attendance in the four university centers, 87.6 per cent entered by 
leaving certificates.^ 

The influence of these certificates may be seen in a draft ordinance 
of the four universities in discussion since 1913. It proposes changes 
in the regulations as to preliminary examinations. It would sub- 
stitute for the present joint board of examiners an " entrance board " 
on a more permanent basis than that of the examiners, and with 
enlarged powers of control and supervision of the preliminary ex- 
aminations. An important step toward the coordination of educa- 
tional authorities and examinations is intimated in proposing that 
the entrance board — ■ 

shall have power to confer from time to time on matters relating to preliminary 
examinations with the Scotch education department, with bodies representing 
teachers in Scotland, and with university and other educational authorities 
outside Scotland. 

In the sections with reference to the methods, scope, standards, 
higher and lower, of the examinations, the subjects and the time of 
passing, there is close conformity with the department and its leav- 
ing certificate. There is an approach to an accredited system of 
schools which have been inspected by the department. 

The proposed Scotch entrance board is a tribute incidentally to the 
success of the coordinating movement in examinations through the 
joint matriculation board of the Universities of Manchester, Liver- 
pool, Leeds, and Sheffield.^ 

The pathfinder is the Oxford and Cambridge schools examination 
board, commonly called the joint board.^ It was established in 1873 
for the inspection and examination of schools preparing boys for 
those universities and to grant certificates on the results of the ex- 
amination. Girls' schools are now admitted. The examinations of 
the board are mainly of two kinds, school examinations, and examina- 
tions of candidates for certificates. The certificate examinations 
are three, for higher certificates, for school certificates, and for lower 
certificates. The higher certificate examination, started in 1874, is 
intended for sixth form candidates of about 18.* Every candidate 
is required to satisfy the examiners in at least four subjects and may 
not be allowed to offer more than six. 

1 Cf. Ch. II, " Scotch Universities," p. 53. 

"Ct. Chs. IV, "The New or Provincial Universities," p. Ill; XIII, "Coordination of 
Institutions," pp. 200—201. The joint matricualtion board inspects and examines schools 
and awards senior school certificates, which are matriculation certificates if the requisite 
subjects are chosen ; also school certificates and housecraft certificates. 

8 Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," p. 37. 

* In 1915 the number of candidates for higher certificates was 1,713 ; number cer- 
tificates awarded, 987. 



228 HIGHER EDUCATIOlSr IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The school certificate examination is intended for fifth form candi- 
dates of about 17. It is a pass examination as a test of general 
education and is awarded on a minimum of five subjects. The cer- 
tificate is granted only to candidates who have been in attendance 
for three years with satisfactory conduct, at one or more schools, 
inspected at intervals of not more than five years by the joint board, 
or by the board of education and approved by the joint board. The 
examination may be held at an uninspected school and its results 
without a certificate accepted at the universities. 

The lower certificate examination is intended for candidates of 
about 16. Successful candidates are classified in each subject in 
two classes. The certificate is awarded on a minimum of five sub- 
jects. The higher certificate and the school certificate give exemption 
under certain conditions from responsions at Oxford, the previous 
examination at Cambridge, and from the entrance examinations 
at their colleges, from the matriculation examinations at other 
universities, and from the preliminary examinations of professional 
bodies, of law, medicine, etc. ^ 

The board of education recognizes these certificates, with some 
provisos, as satisfying certain of its requirements for the training 
of teachers. Indeed, the board and the universities have come into 
a closer cooperation, in that the board has recognized the universities 
as inspecting authorities, and the " administrative inspection " of 
the board may be in conjunction with the "examination inspection" 
by the universities. This may be a point of departure for one of 
the reforms adumbrated in circular " 849 " to effect the combination 
of a system of inspection with a system of examination. The results 
of inspection need to be known by the examiners, and the finding 
of the examiners by the inspectors.^ 

The local examinations of Oxford and Cambridge, which must 
be kept quite distinct from the school examinations, of which they 
were a forerunner, were established in 1858 as a result of an appeal 
from outside the universities.^ At first these were really local exami- 
nations, i.e., examinations at local centers, not schools. 

They were intended to promote a good general education for those 
under 18 and not members of the universities. The candidates were 
expected to master the elements of a plain English education, after 

1 Cf. " Regulations of the Oxford and Cambridge schools exam, board," 1915. 

* Cf . on the state of inspection " Report Consultative Committee," supra, pp. 63-66, 
389. The opinion of the schools inquiry committee was in favor of intrusting the exami- 
nations of students in secondary schools to universities as the natural centers. Rep. of 
committees, 1868, Vol. I, p. 648. The secondary education committee report made an 
" imj^ortant distinction between official and educational inspection," " official " dealing 
with buildings, regulations, etc. ; " educational " with the examination of pupils. " In- 
spection should be provided by the State and examinations by the universities." Vol. I, 
1895, pp. 163-165. 

3 Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," p. 37. 



EXAMINATIONS. 229 

which they were to be allowed a wide latitude in the selection of 
subjects. The universities were appealed to as competent and im- 
partial and possessing " in a special degree sufficient public confi- 
dence for the work." There was fear on the one hand of the perils 
of bureaucratic methods of a State board, and on the other hand of 
the " private crochets or personal interests " of other bodies.^ So 
successfully have the universities fulfilled their mission that these 
examinations have multiplied and been subdivided into preliminary, 
junior, senior, and higher local examinations, taken at many centers 
and by a multitude of candidates.- The senior and higher local 
examination under certain conditions gain exemption from " respon- 
sions " and the " previous examination." The growth of extra-mural 
examinations and of inspection of schools by the universities, and 
all apart from State legislation, has so demonstrated that a univer- 
sity is naturally the apex of a school system that the charters of all 
the new British universities empower them to inspect schools and 
be examining bodies.^ In spite of the free and voluntary evolution 
of the various examination systems and the obvious need for their 
coordination one hears from adverse critics of Circular " 849," in 
accordance with their fears or interests, phrases not unfamiliar in 
America — on the one hand, " deliverance from the yoke of the uni- 
versities," and on the other, " protection from the tyranny of the 
board of education." 

A galaxy of universities is appearing above the horizon, each with 
its own planetary s^'stem of schools, and all, under the influence 
of a national board of education, moving toward one goal by means 
of school leaving and entrance examinations with common stand- 
ards. We may be on the verge of a favorable answer to the pleo 
Lord Curzon made in 1909 " for a universal and elastic system of 
school-leaving examinations conducted by the universities in con- 
sultation with the Government and with the masters of secondary 
schools." The signs of it are the promulgation of a statute for 
the reform of responsions at Oxford in 1913, although it Avas tem- 
porarily defeated in 1914, and the report in 1914,* still pending, 
of the previous examination syndicate at Cambridge in favor of 
fundamental changes, administrative and educational. In both uni- 

^ Acland, T. D., " Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the new Oxford Exami- 
nations for the title of Associate in Arts and for Certificates," 1S58 ; cf. repoi-t Con- 
sultative Committee, supra, pp. 11-14, 160-170. 

2 Oxford local exams., total number candidates (exclusive certain oversea centers) 
examined for certificate, 17,834 in 1915, of whom 12,845 passed. 

3 Cf. Chs. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," p. 20 ; IV, " New or Provincial Uni- 
versities," pp. 111-112. 

* The Oxford statute promulgated In congregation, Nov. 4, 1913, by a majority of 10, 
and repeatedly debated and amended in succeeding congregations, was rejected June 16, 
1914, by a majority of 37 ; some of its friendb voting against it in its amended form. 
The Cambridge syndicate appointed May, 1913, reported June, 1914 (Cam. Univ. Rep., 
June 16, 1914). Further action postponed on account of the war. 



230 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

versities references were made to conferences designed to procure 
cooperation and to bring into line the school examinations, which 
served as a test of general education. In both places a change in the 
administration of the examinations was proposed in order to have 
the supervision of these examinations in the hands of those dealing 
with the inspection and examination of schools. As regards educa- 
tional changes, the proposal at Oxford was practically to substitute 
for responsions the examination for school certificates which already 
exempts from responsions. The statute proposed the addition to 
the necessary subjects, namely, Latin, Greek, and mathematics, of 
English, and an optional modern subject, in languages or historical 
or natural sciences. It is said that the retention of compulsory Greek 
is the crucial question behind the reform of responsions. The meas- 
ure would have broadened and raised the standard of responsions. 
It was received with unanimity and enthusiasm by the headmasters' 
conference and by the headmasters' association, the representatives 
of some 800 schools and of 75 per cent of those preparing the under- 
graduates who come to Oxford. The friends of the rejected statute 
believe, in view of the possible developments at Cambridge, that the 
rejection may prove to have been a blessing in disguise. They hope 
that the two ancient universities will take counsel together to deal 
with the urgent problem of correlating the universities with the 
secondary schools and at the same time broaden the avenue to the 
university for all classes of students.^ 

The Cambridge syndicate wish " that the examinations that qual- 
ify for study at universities and for entrance to professions should 
be coordinated." They " think that preliminary examinations should 
be comprehensive in their scope, but should include only such subjects 
as are taught in the ordinary curriculum of public and other second- 
ary schools." The syndicate's plan, in harmony with the scheme of 
the board of education, proposes a previous examination of a scope 
and standard " such that it can be taken by the average schoolboy 
of about 17 years of age in the course of his normal school work 
without cramming or special preparation." They propose that a 
student shall be required to pass in groups of subjects rather than 
in individual subjects, and that some choice of additional optional 
subjects should be permitted. They name as compulsory subjects 
English, elementary mathematics, and science, and two foreign lan- 
guages, of which Latin should be one. "The syndicate attach a high 
value to the study of Greek in the general system of secondary edu- 
cation," but they do not recommend that it should continue to be 
a compulsory subject. They place on record " that they find that a 

1 Ball, Sidney, '• Daily Telegraph," June 30, 1914. Of. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and 
Durham," p. 23. 



EXAMIKATIONS. 231 

majority of teachers do not advocate the retention of Greek as a 
compulsory subject." Upon inquiry at 200 schools, they learn that 
at the larger public schools some 25 per cent of the boys are doing 
Greek, and at the lesser public schools some 8 per cent.^ 

The syndicate suggests that any certificate might be accepted in 
lieu of the previous examination, provided it includes English, math- 
ematics, Latin, and one language other than English and Latin. As 
Latin is not everywhere a normal subject of study outside the United 
Kingdom, they do not suggest that Latin should be a compulsory sub- 
ject for students from abroad. 

In conclusion, it is plain that there is a trend away from the old 
extreme of entrance examinations by individual institutions, if not 
toward the extreme of an accrediting system common in the United 
States, toward an intermediate plan like that of the American col- 
lege entrance examination board. A certificate system is coming in, 
resting upon something more than an external examination. It must 
embrace the teachers' estimates of their puj^ils' abilities, the teach- 
ers' participation in the examination, and be supplemented by inspec- 
tion of the school. The admission examination is being made more 
flexible, broadened in its range, and its standard raised. 

^ The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies issued a memorial in 1011 on the 
place of Greek in education. Answers to their questions showed that no university 
makes Greek compulsory on all students for entrance except Oxford and Cambridge, and 
they make an exception for students of oriental origin and Oxford for candidates for 
diplomas and B. Lift. Durham College and Trinity College, Dublin, make Greek compul- 
sory for classical students. No university except Oxford makes Greek compulsory after 
entrance, and Oxford excepts candidates for diplomas and D. Litt. Only Trinity College, 
Dublin, makes Latin compulsory. The majority of answers were against licginning Greek 
at a university. Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," pp. 21-23. 



Chapter XVII. 

CURRICULA. 



A general glance at the curricula of the British universities im- 
presses one with the retention of certain common characteristics and 
the force of new tendencies. The variety and differences in standards 
of admission and the general acceptance of a higher and lower grade 
of preparation are suggestive, as over against the present American 
standardization with the terminology of " units," after the fashion 
of an exact science. To understand the British practices and present- 
day movements, it is necessary to apprehend back of the common 
inherited forms certain general ideas. 

Admission to the university has been determined more by the 
general development and character of the pupil and his fitness for 
university education than upon intellectual tests. xVt Oxford and 
Cambridge social qualifications have played no small part. Admis- 
sion at these two universities must come through membership in a 
college or in a noncollegiate body as the equivalent of a college.^ 
Every college and not the university has an entrance examination of 
different character standards. Each college admits to membership 
pupils selected on the basis of the certificates or letters of the candi- 
dates' masters and the results of confidential inquiries. Candidates 
who have passed the examinations may be rejected without explana- 
tion if these inquiries are not satisfactory. 

The result is, firstly, that the university has no voice in determining the con- 
ditions of its membership; secondly, that there is a wide variety of standards 
created by the colleges. A man who is rejected in one college may even pass on 
and obtain admission at another, the scale of the requirement descending in 
proportion to the character and reputation of the college.'' 

It is possible for men to come into residence before they have 
passed the first real university examination (responsions or prelimi- 
nary), and to stay on after they have failed to pass. The low stand- 
ard and limited range of these examinations are not the only grounds 
for their proposed reform. The practical necessity for a common 
examination for Rhodes scholars and the exemptions by the accept- 
ance of the examinations of numerous bodies have heightened the 
feeling that these two universities should not continue to be unique 

1 Cf. Chs. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," pp. 24-25 ; XVI, " Examinations," 
pp. 229-231. 

* Curzon, supra, p. 109. 

232 



CURRICULA. 233 

in the world in not setting their own entrance examinations and 
make the passing of them requisite for matriciihition. 

Hitherto these universities have given an ilhistration of the sub- 
ordination of intellectual tests for entrance to what amounted to cer- 
tificates of character and fitness from the masters in the " public 
schools," which prepared the majority of their entrants. The six 
3'^ears' training in the elements of a liberal education of the selected 
pupils in these famous schools perhaps minimized the need for a 
sifting examinational test. The incoming of a large number of 
students from the newly risen secondary schools, and of women, as 
well as the example of a matriculation examination in all other uni- 
versities and the acceptance of a school-leaving certificate, incline the 
universities to have their own entrance examination of a higher 
standard and to separate the matriculated from the nonmatriculated 
student. They feel the constraint of the emergence of a national sys- 
tem of graded schools.^ The idea is prevailing that a university 
curriculum should begin where the secondary school leaves off. 

The widening of the curricula of both the secondary school and 
. the university by the introduction of new studies necessarily rather 
telescopes the instruction of the last years of the school with the first 
year of the university. The former laxity as to matriculation stand- 
ards has enabled the British to meet this situation. They are now 
confronting it, dominated by several helpful ideas. The written 
entrance examination is to be kept subsidiary to the whole record 
of the student and to personal testimony as to his fitness to proceed 
to higher education. They seek to accomplish this by the inspection 
of the schools, by throwing responsibility upon the masters and local 
authorities in presenting scholars, and, where leaving certificates are 
not accepted, confining the examination to four branches instead of 
a multitude of subjects and permitting options in the subjects in 
one or more of the branches. The beginning of the curriculum in 
the primary faculties of arts and science up to the time after a 
year or more when an intermediate examination under various names 
is taken is treated as a transitional period, during which the per- 
sonal equation can be calculated. Thereafter a degree of specializa- 
tion is permitted surprising to an American who has heard so much 
of the broad cultural education of Oxford and Cambridge. The 
idea of the Briton is that a liberal education does not consist in 
sampling all kinds of knowledge, but in liberalizing the mind and 
producing culture by the human touch, which Principal Shairp 
defined as " sympathy with intelligence." It is this spirit, the com- 
mingling of teachers and students and of the arts and professional 

»Cf. Ch. I, "Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 29. 



234 HIGHER EDUCATIOlSr IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

studies which prevents the last two or three years of intense speciali- 
zation turning out narrow men. 

Two further factors clarify the whole matter. The " public " and 
secondary schools are supposed to give the liberal and general edu- 
cation. It will be recalled that the first advocates of local examina- 
tions sought to promote " general education," and Oxford at first 
acknowledged its products as " associates in arts." ^ The " public 
schools " have been conjoined in liberal education, especially with the 
primary faculty of arts at Oxford and Cambridge, in preparation 
for the work of the superior faculties. This is particularly intimated 
by reference to the history of the "colleges" of Winchester and 
Eton. The B. A. degree was not a goal, the center and circumference 
of all culture. It marked a stage in progress toward a profession. 
At Cambridge a candidate is not admitted at first to a complete 
degree, but only to the title of a degree. He is only a "bachelor 
designate" of arts, of law, of medicine, of surgery, and of music, 
until later the degree is completed by " inauguration." A bachelor 
of arts proceeding to the M. A. degree is still an " inceptor in arts." 
Theoretically a bachelor's degree is preparatory to some professional 
practice by which it is to be perfected. 

The university curriculum opens with a transitional stage presup- 
posing a general and liberal education in the lower schools. Ordi- 
narily within a year, in a second stage, opportunity for specialization 
is given preparatory to the third and professional stage. We have 
purposely used the word " stage " instead of " year," for within cer- 
tain limits one may take his examinations sooner or later when he is 
ready for them, and take his bachelor's degree in three, four, or more 
years. 

The second factor is the double standard for a degree, the first 
known as the pass, poll, or ordinary degree, and the second as the 
honors degree. These are quite different from the American degrees 
with or without distinction or honor which only record the standing 
or " marks " of students who have been through the same courses. 
The British lay out different curricula for the two kinds of degrees 
and types of students. They minister through a shallower curriculum 
with a larger number of subjects to the " pass man," the indifferent 
or average student, and through a deeper and more specialized cur- 
riculum to the " honors man," the earnest or able scholar. The pass 
or ordinary degree " represents a moderate degree of proficiency in 
a considerable range of subjects, and an honors degree represents a 
much higher proficiency in a special subject or group of subjects."^ 

1 Cf. Ch. XVI, " Examinations," pp. 228-229. 

2Cf. Ch. I, "Oxford, Cambridge, and Duiham," p. 35. 



CUBRICULA. 235 

The pass degreo is ordinarily taken in three years and the honors 
degree in four years. The temptation for the brilliant student in 
America to shorten his course to tln-ee years is prevented by the pro- 
vision of the separate honors curriculum and higher standard of 
examination, requiring not less than four undergraduate years or a 
higher grade of entrance examination. The professed aim of the 
British university is to provide for the recognition of the quality of 
work and for men of ability rather than for a carefully measured 
quantity of work and for the average man. 

The standard represented by the ordinary degi'ee is steadily rising and will 
continue to rise in proportion to the improvement of the general level of educa- 
tion below the university grade. For it is a sound principle that only students 
who are really worth cultivating should be admitted to share in the privileges 
of a civic university.^ 

The standard has indeed been raised by the statutes of all the new 
English universities which require that the matriculation examina- 
tion " must be passed by students before entering on the degree 
courses in the university." The curricula, too, of all the universities, 
old and new, have been widened by the introduction of the newer 
subjects of study.^ 

But the most suggestive point for the American is the " shattering 
of the old pint pot," the hard and fast single curriculum of early 
^days, without falling into the anarchy of " free electives," or the 
multiplicity of optional courses ingeniously devised by the logrolling 
of departments zealous of maintaining their prestige and attendance. 
The " honors schools," i. e., examinations conducted not by the pro- 
fessors in each course, but by other examiners, naturally were not 
examinations for " small, disconnected courses " but for groups of 
related studies. With the introduction of the new studies, group after 
group of honors schools budded off the old curriculum. The courses 
of instruction were divided and organized into subjects, or groups 
of cognate subjects, to be elected by the more serious students.^ An 
approximate notion of the drift with reference to curricula may be 

* Muir, supra, p. 31. 

2 Cf. Chs. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham," p. 35 ; II, "Scotch Universities," p 50 ; 
III, " University of London," pp. 75-76. 

3 Cf. Corbin, supra, p. 283, passim. Cf. Oxford public examination divided into a pass 
school containing five groups of ' subjects and nine honors schools. The five groups 
broadly are (1) languages; (2) history, including geography, political economy, a 
branch of legal study, and English literature; (3) mathematics, including mechanics, 
elementary physical and biological sciences, and rural economy ; (4) elements of religious 
knowledge ; (5) military subjects. A candidate must pass in three of these sulijects, of 
which one must be a language, and not more than two subjects may be taken from any 
group except the historical group. For the nine honors schools, see Ch. I, p. 35. In 
honors schools a candidate may offer a special subject in addition to the stated subjects. 
The written examinations are supplemented by a viva voce examination, or in the case 
of the sciences by practical work in the laboratories. The successful candidates are 
enrolled in four classes. 



236 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

gathered from some of the main points of the revision (1908-09) in 
the regulations for degrees in arts in the Scotch imiversities. 

The curriculum for the first arts degree must extend over not less 
than three academical years. Before entering on the curriculum 
each student must pass an entrance examination in four subjects — 
English, Latin or Greek, mathematics, and one language or dy- 
namics. In the subjects of Latin, Greek, and mathematics one may 
pass on a higher or lower standard, but the higher standard is 
required in at least one of these subjects. 

The curriculum for the ordinary degree must consist of either five 
or six subjects, which must be studied by attendance on qualifying 
courses therein. The subjects are grouped in four " departments 
of study " : Language and literature ; science, including mathe- 
matics; mental philosophy, including moral philosophy, political 
economy and education ; and history and law. Among these groups 
every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in at least two 
and not more than three linguistic subjects, in at least one and not 
more than two scientific subjects, and in logic and psychology, with 
a proviso that either Latin or mathematics must be taken. 

A qualifying course in each subject consists of not less than 75 
meetings of the full class on separate days or of not less than 40 
meetings where half courses have been sanctioned. 

The ordinance empowered each university to define and group the' 
subjects in the several " departments of study," to select them for 
the curriculum, and to classify them as cognate. 

The first degree with honors may be taken in any group (con- 
sisting of a subject or subjects) in which honors classes conducted 
by at least two separate professors or lecturers have been estab- 
lished. Every candidate must attend at least four qualifying courses 
in his honors group and at least two outside his honors group. The 
examinations in the subjects in his honors group or groups must be 
on a higher standard than those for the ordinary degree. 

The principles illustrated by the details concerning the first de- 
grees in the faculty of arts are in general applied to the curricula 
for the degrees in other faculties. In the faculty of science in the 
preliminary examination, French or German may be substituted for 
Latin or Greek, and mathematics must be passed on the higher stand- 
ard. Candidates for the degree of bachelor of science must attend 
at least seven prescribed courses in not less than three academical 
years. Three of these courses — mathematics or biology, natural 
philosophy, and chemistry — are prescribed for the first science ex- 
amination and may be passed on the ordinary standard. Four 
courses of higher instruction must be selected from a list of scien- 
tific subjects prescribed for a final science examination, at least 
three of which must be passed on a higher standard. 



CURRICULA. 237 

The latest experiment in framing an arts curriculum has been 
made at Eeading.^ Its advocates sought to remedy what they as- 
serted to be the defects of the curricula in modern universities. By 
their scheme the first year of university training "must form a 
bridge between school and university education. It must share in 
the characteristics of both." Professors are expected to take a share 
in the teaching of elementary classes. A one-year course is laid out 
in five subjects. They are rhetoric (practical training in the use of 
the mother tongue), Greek or Latin, a second foreign language, 
either logic or pure mathematics, and the outlines of universal his- 
tory with auxiliary study of historical geography. A student of 
foreign languages may substitute a third foreign language for the 
fourth and fifth subjects. A student of philosophy and mathematics 
may take both logic and mathematics in place of the second foreign 
language. 

This first year's largely compulsory course is followed by two 
years of study for the pass or honors degree of B. A. Both courses 
aim at imparting general culture rather than specialized atts^inment. 
The pas's degree course is in four branches, one of which must be a 
classical language and one must be from a nonlinguistic group. In 
the honors course three subjects are required, of which not more than 
two may be from the language group. The subjects are not distin- 
guished as main and subsidiary. The degree in honors will be 
awarded in arts as a whole if work of first-class quality is done in 
one of the three subjects and a satisfactory standard maintained 
in the others. 

The three honors subjects are studied in correlation as three as- 
pects of humane learning. The plan is based on the assumption 
that " the honors curriculum {of the universities) seems to stand 
most in need of reform," and is confirmed by Mr. Stanley Leathe's 
appeal to the universities for "full and enlightened recognition " of 
the claims of " modern humanistic studies." ^ 

A proposed third stage of the Reading curriculum is a two years' 
postgraduate course for the M. A. degree, open to those who have 
taken the B. A. with honors. The consent also of the faculty is 
necessary in each case in order to give assurance that the student 
in the opinion of his teachers is qualified for specialization. One 
year at least must be spent in residence at the university. The can- 
didate must pursue an approved course of study in a single branch 
of learning, under the direction of the professor responsible for the 
subject of his thesis. 

1 University College, Reading. Twenty-first Anniversary, supra, 1913, pp. 51-7.5. 
Cf. Ch. V, " Independent University Colleges," pp. 132-135. 

2 The Times, edu. sup., Jan. 7, Feb. 4, 1913. 



238 HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

The degree is to be awarded upon the presentation of a thesis 
satisfactory to a board of assessors. There is to be no examination 
except an oral discussion of the subject by the assessors with the 
candidate. The principle is maintained that specialization in a single 
subject should be deferred to a postgraduate stage of the curriculum, 
resting upon " a broad and liberal honors course in the humanities." 

The variety and flexibility of the curricula, the attempt to recognize 
the quality as well as the quantity of the student's work, the elas- 
ticity in the time requirements in covering distinct stages rather 
than years in the curriculum, and the freedom of the student to 
choose his curriculum, give a preeminence among the methods of in- 
struction to a tutorial system. The tutorial system at Oxford and 
Cambridge is being made more vigorous than ever. The inter- 
collegiate lectures, the opening of more permanent careers and of 
opportunities of promotion, have enabled the tutor largely to sup- 
plant the private coach. 

The Scotch and the new English universities feel the need of some 
adaptation of the tutorial system and are making endeavors in the 
direction of it. Some of them have instituted " advisers of studies," 
as at Glasgow. Reading assigns every student to a tutor. The 
tendency everywhere is to supplement the lecture system by paper 
work, and by some adaptation of the seminar, as well as by labora- 
tories and practice work in the sciences. 

The curricula in the professional faculties, from the nature of the 
case, are largely fixed. They are anchored also by the recognition 
of their preliminary courses in the arts and science faculties and 
degrees, and justify within certain limits the combined courses of 
some American universities. By the provision of more than one 
degree, and by advanced degrees, the professional courses also give 
opportunity for the recognition of specialized or advanced work be- 
yond the first degree. 



Chapter XVIII. 

STUDENT LIFE. 



The two distinct types of student life, that of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge on the one hand, and that of the Scotch and new English 
universities on the other, are tending to approximate one another. 
The collegiate, residential, and tutorial s^'Stem of the former exalted 
the college above the university and made " the social relationship 
the basis of the system of instruction." ^ In the latter the university, 
undivided by colleges as in Germany and America, made " the 
course" the point of departure, resulting in the greater cultivation 
of scholastic than of social ideals. The " universitizing " and indeed 
democratization of the student life in the old universities is due to 
many factors. The enlargement of the governmental powers of the 
universities and of their endowments increasing the number of 
university professorships and lectureships, the use of university 
laboratories and libraries, as well as the intercollegiate lectures, are 
giving a common basis of university instruction and acquaintance 
OA^er and above those of the college. The day is past when each 
college provided all the necessary instruction for its members and 
each was independent of the other socially and in athletics. While 
each college has the advantage of its own small clubs of all kinds, 
and of its athletic teams, there are now the greater university clubs 
for every sort of undergraduate activity. The students have fos- 
tered these university societies since the end of the first quarter of 
the nineteenth century, when the Oxford Union was founded, pri- 
marily for debate.^ At first it was exclusive in membership. It 
soon became the intellectual, social, and sporting bond of union of 
the best university men. Gradually it lost its exclusiveness. In 
1902 Mr. Corbin wrote that the glory of the union had departed, 
and attributed it to a response of the union to the strong democratic 
impulse which had entered Oxford and caused the union to throw 
down all barriers, virtually receiving any man to membership. It 
would be better to say its decline in prominence was relative, largely 
due to the increase of other student organizations. It has recently 
recovered its position, aided by the gifts of its friends and the en- 

1 Corbin, supra, pp. 35-36. Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford. Cambridge, Durham," pp. 16-18 and 
p. 248. 

'' The Union Society, Cambridge, was foumled first in 1815. It now has more than 
13,000 members, of whom 2,000 are in residence. 

239 



240 HIGHEB EDUCATION" IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

largement of its buildings. Political leaders and cabinet ministers 
are glad to lead its debates on living issues. It and the sister union 
at Cambridge have become the pattern of student unions throughout 
the English-speaking world.^ 

The preeminence of the social element in education is secured 
by requiring every undergraduate, with some exceptions, to be a 
member of a college which selects it^ membership as much upon 
personal inquiry and social introduction as upon intellectual tests. 
The family and the later " public school " house life are perpetuated. 
The upper and lower classmen, the masters, and some of the tutors, 
reside within the college buildings, which are secluded by their 
walls and locked gates protecting their " quads," or courts, and gar- 
dens. All dine together in the great hall and have their common 
I'ooms for the dons and likewise for the students. Each college in its 
own chapel continues daily family worship, attendance upon which 
has been compulsory, at least to the extent of answering roll call. 
The transition to voluntary attendance is noAv being made, a number 
of colleges having abolished compulsion within the last 10 years, 
though keeping a record of attendance. In addition to the regu- 
lations and discipline of each college for its students, there are the 
university regulations. The student has a duality of social life and 
of obligations in the college and the university like those of the 
boy subject to the discipline of his home and the laws of the State.^ 
The key to an understanding of the situation is found in the pur- 
pose of the college to build character and to make gentlemen as well 
as to teach, reinforced by the university's traditional theory that 
undergraduates are in statu pupillari. Many of the mediaeval regu- 
lations, which included even oaths of secrecy and corporal punish- 
ment, have disappeared. But it is still considered desirable to retain 
restrictions, of which but a few relics survive in American colleges. 
A few illiistrations from Cambridge will serve : ^ When a student 
" matriculates " he signs his name to a promise to observe the 
statutes and ordinances of the university and to be subject to its 
authorities. He is required, if not in a college or hostel, to reside 
in " licensed lodgings," or at least in a place approved by the Uni- 
versity's Lodging House Syndicate. The lodging-house keeper signs 
an agreement Avhich virtually requires him to enforce the residential 
regulations of the colleges. For example, he agrees to lock the outer 
doors at 10 o'clock at night and to make a weekly report upon the 
students' observance of regulations. NoncoUegiate students are 
subject to the same regulations as the members of a college, and are 

iCf. p. 247. 

2 Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," pp. 18, 27, 40. 

s Cf. "A Compendium of University Regulations for the Use of Persons in Statu Pupil- 
lari." Cambridge University Press, 1913. Cf. Regulations for Women, Ch. VIII, 
" Women's Colleges," p. 154. 



STUDENT LIFE. 241 

under the supervision of a censor appointed by the Lodging House 
Syndicate in place of a college tutor. 
Under the title of " discipline," the first requirement is to wear — 

proper academical dress in decent order and in proper manner at all university 
lectures and examinations * * *, in the university church, the senate 
house, and the library ; at all times on Sundays in the streets, and every eve- 
ning in all parts of the town. 

A fine may be imposed for smoking in the streets or riding a 
bicA^cle while wearing academical dress, a rule more honored in the 
breach than in the observance. 

A student is forbidden to drive " tandems " or " four-in-hand " 
carriages. On Sunday he may not drive any vehicle without the 
Avritten permission of his tutor. He may not keep and use any 
motor vehicle within the precincts without obtaining, upon the 
permission of his tutor, a license from the university. He is for- 
bidden to have dealings with any money lenders or to contract large 
debts without the knowledge of his tutor. Any tradesman to whom 
any person hi statu pupilJan becomes indebted to an amount exceed- 
ing $25 is required to notify the college tutor, and the tradesman 
is bound to send to the tutor on each quarter day a statement of 
the whole amount owing from a pupil. The tradesman violating 
the rule is liable to be " discommuned," i. e., he is forbidden to deal 
with any pupil, and all pupils are forbidden to trade with him. 

Leave must be obtained to give or take part in public entertain- 
ments. Until modern times attendance at a theater was forbidden, 
and now the university prescribes the parts of the house to which 
students may be admitted. 

A student must present a certificate that he can swim, if he is to 
use a boat on certain parts of the river. 

These specimens give an impression of the minutite of social 
regulations, which, it is fair to add, are administered with discretion. 
They supplement the fundamental regulations of any violation of 
morality and decorum. In passing it may be said different pro- 
fessors tell me there has been an improvement in morals. They 
roughly estimate that one-half the students now take w^ater instead 
of beer or wine as formerly. The university cooperates with the 
college authorities. In practice, the tutor, to whom a limited number 
of students is assigned,^ stands in loco parentis, and the " caution 
money " deposited by the pupil upon matriculation adds a property 
restraint to personal sanctions. 

Conversations with American Ehodes scholars in Oxford and 
with teachers who have had experience in both American and Eng- 
lish colleges, tend to support the opinion expressed by an iVmerican 

1 E. g., at Trinity a tutor is allowed 42 pensioners and 5 sizars. 
89687°— Bull. 16—17 16 



242 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

at Oxford : " On the whole, I would say that the restrictions of 
college life in England are far less dangerous than the absolute free- 
dom of life in an American college." ^ 

The multiplicity of colleges and college clubs has not diminished 
the attention given to athletics. Each college has its series of 
athletic clubs for boating, cricket, football, lawn tennis, hockey, golf, 
and field sports. The captains and secretaries of all the clubs call 
on the freshmen to see what they can do. The collegiate system gives 
opportunity for the intercollegiate sports and training for the uni- 
versity teams. A college is rated by the number of " firsts " it takes 
in scholarship and the number of " blues " it takes in the " varsity " 
games. Even in the obituaries of England's greatest men promi- 
nence is given not only to the " firsts " and prizes but also to their 
athletic honors taken in their undergraduate life. 

The score or more of colleges at each of the universities, the zeal 
of the college athletic clubs, the habitual devotion of the student's 
afternoon to the playing field, and the Englishman's inbred love 
of sport, cause the students, practically universally, to engage in 
athletics. The contrast is great compared with the American uni- 
versity, which produces a few athletic champions out of a limited 
number of athletes. The English have hundreds of students en- 
gaged, but all just below the champion standard. The enthusiasm 
of the universities as a whole for athletics is modern. Intervarsity 
meetings were not established until in the last half of the nineteenth 
century. There is freedom to play with nonuniversity organiza- 
tions and, to an American, a striking absence of faculty and other 
regulations. In 1014 the introduction at Oxford of certain re- 
strictions with reference to age for participation in matches was 
attributed to the presence of Rhodes scholars of riper years. The 
universal British spirit of the amateur and of sportsmanship safe- 
guard against the intrusion of professionalism and the American 
overseriousness in playing to win. 

Out-of-door games from boyhood have made the spacious playing 
field, possibly aided by the climate, a substitute for the gymnasium. 
Compulsory physical training is practically unheard of. This is not 
only on account of the prevalence of games, but of the spirit of 
voluntaryism which so characterizes the British people that they 
have raised the greatest volunteer army in the history of wars. 

Military training is a recent instance of voluntaryism in British 
schools and universities. It is closely allied with physical training 
and the social life of undergraduates. In the colleges of agricul- 
ture and mechanic arts throughout the United States it has long 
been compulsory by statute. An agitation to make it so in British 

* Corbin, supra, p. 50. 



STUDENT LIFE. 243 

universities caused a battle of "fly .sheets" in Cambridge shortly 
before the war. Proposals in an article in the Nineteenth Century 
and After'^ adA'ocating making military instruction compulsory by 
act of Parliament for a B. A. degree in British universities Avere 
urged for consideration by the Cambridge senate in a fly sheet signed 
by over 1,700 members. It was opposed by some 150 resident mem- 
bers, if the university were to act by its own authority. The out- 
break of the war has given a pause to the discussion, but has brought 
into prominence the history and value of the officers' training corps 
in the schools and universities. After the Boer War the war office 
took advantage of the interest of the students in military training, 
particularly in the universities, and provided a system of granting 
them commissions.- 

In 1907 Lord Haldane, then secretary of state for war, arranged 
that the University Volunteer and School Cadet Corps should 
become contingents of the ncAv officers' training corps. 

The primary object of the officers' training corps is to provide students at 
scliool and universities with a standardized measure of elementary training, 
with a view to their eventually applying for commissious in the special reserve 
of officers or the territorial force.^ 

These " university candidates " for commissions, averaging some 
three years older than the boys from Sandhurst and Woolwich, are 
granted 18 months' seniority. They have to pass examinations in 
six subjects — strategy and military history, tactics, military engineer- 
ing, topography, military law and administration. The movement 
was so successfid that by 1911, 1(5,000 cadets were present at the 
royal review of the officers' training corps by the King at Windsor. 

In 1912 the University of London recognized for the first time 
military science as an optional subject in the courses for the B. A. 
and B. S. degrees. 

The officers' training corps have sent thousands of volunteers into 
the present war and are regarded as a chief source of supply to meet 
the terrible loss of officers.* Surely the lesson from British experi- 
ence is not to multiply AVest Points, but to make more efficient the 
military departments in American colleges and universities. 

A series of " War and Peace Societies " was being established in 
the universities just before the war, but avowedly not inimical to 

''- No. 445, Mar., 1914, pp. 682, passim, " The Universities and Military Training ;" cf. 
" Schools and Military Training," The Times, Ed. Sup., Feb. 1, 1915. 

2 Cf. Peterson, W. G., " Military Training in the University," University Magazine, 
Apr., 1914, Montreal, pp. 292-305. 

3 Regulations for Officers' Training Corps, U. K., pub. with army orders, Apr. 1, 1912. 
* The total numbers, approximately, serving in the British forces (reported in the 

Year-Book of the Universities of the Empire, June, 1915), from the staffs of instruction 
of the universities and colleges in Great Britain and Ireland, 1,185 ; from the student 
bodies, 17,430, inclusive of the officers' training corps ; including graduates, it is esti- 
mated that Oxford and Cambridge alone have sent about 20,000. 



244 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

the officers' training corps. The objects of the societies are to diffuse 
information " with regard to the economic futility of armed aggres- 
sion, to consider the problem of defense, and means of settling inter- 
national disputes without war." 

A sign of the democratization of Oxford and Cambridge is the 
life of the present Prince of Wales at Oxford as contrasted with 
that of his grandfather, King Edward, when Prince of Wales. 
King Edward was not permitted to enjoy the democratic life of an 
undergraduate. He did not have undergraduate rooms in Christ 
Church. He wore a special gown. When he entered the room at 
a public function, like a debate at the union, everybody rose. The 
present prince in 1914 closed two happy years of ordinary under- 
graduate life, coming up like any other " fresher." He had no 
special privileges; no distinction in treatment, dress, or address was 
made between him and the other students. He was content to play 
football with the college second eleA'en, to become a private in the 
officers' training corps, and in " eights week " to be simply an earnest 
follower of the boat from the towpath. 

Lord Kosebery has called attention to the change in the treat- 
ment of the nobility since his time as an undergraduate, when a 
nobleman, though a " fresher," was seaied at the high table and had 
precedence over fellows and scholars. At Cambridge the chief 
vestige of the former distinction of rank is that a nobleman pays a 
matriculation fee of $75 as over against a fellow-commoner's $50. 

The war, which has more than " literally decimated " the univer- 
sities, furnishes an opportunity for, if it will not compel, a new 
order of things. Already the provost of one of the colleges has 
issued a plea to the dons to initiate a greater simplicity and economy 
in living and a greater industry.^ 

The university publications estimate the total expenditure of a 
student within the short collegiate year of about 20 weeks at from 
$750 to $800. It is possible, by the most rigorous economy and by 
foregoing much that makes university residence of value, to reduce 
the expenditure to $425 or $450. It is evidently desirable and in 
no way extravagant to spend $1,000. The Rhodes scholars therefore 
find the $1,500, which are supposed to cover all the expenses for a 
year of 52 weeks, including traveling, none too much. 

The call to the simplification of life, to less expensive living, and 
greater industry in the old universities, and the increased devotion to 
university activities over and above those of the colleges, are evi- 
dences of the approximation of the student life to that of the Scotch 
and new universities. The latter universities, in turn, seeing the ad- 
vantages of the former with their collegiate residences and social 

1 Phelps, L. R., provost of Oriel College, Oxford, " Thoughts for the Times." Cf. The 
Times, Educ. Sup., Apr. 6, 1915. Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 30. 



STUDENT LIFE. 245 

regulations, are seeking to provide facilities for the corporate student 
life. Without exception they are now encouraging the erection of 
halls of residence or hostels. Without exception each one of them 
has at least one such place, and the number is rapidly increasing 
through private benefactions. The first building is generally for 
young women, and then for training college students, in order to 
receive grants from the board of education. The authorities are 
attempting to create the atmosphere of an Oxford or Cambridge resi- 
dential college without its expensiveness. One of the latest examples 
is the city of Leeds new training college. The site is a 90-acre park 
in the suburbs, conveniently connected with the city and the uni- 
versity by street railway. The buildings consist of a great central 
edifice devoted to instruction, flanked by three men's hostels on one 
side and five women's on the other, with their adjoining playing 
fields. At the sides and back are houses for the principal and vice 
principal, laundiy, swimming bath, and games pavilion. Each 
hostel houses 60 students. Each has a common room and dining hall. 
Each house has a resident tutor who, with his prefects, some of them 
chosen by the students themselves, maintains the discipline of the 
place. Each hostel is a financial unit, for which its matron is re- 
sponsible. In the center of the college building is a large hall, with 
stage and organ, about which are grouped, with connecting cloisters, 
the rooms devoted to instruction. 

Reading is working out and applying certain principles as to a 
residential system in a modern university. The education of the 
student by association with his fellow students is made a factor 
equal to his study and his class work.^ The hall of residence is con- 
sidered the best means for this purpose, but certain conditions are 
important. The hall should accommodate between 50 and 100 stu- 
dents. If there are less than 50, the right sort of people are not 
likely to meet one another. If there are over 100, there is danger 
of some becoming hermits. Hostels should not be occupied by par- 
ticular classes of students, or exclusively by those entering with the 
same training, or contemplating the same career. To do so is to 
miss the opportunity of broadening the students' outlook. The hos- 
tel tends to establish a standard in such matters as those of food, 
clothes, and manners. A standard of plain living so desirable for 
society in this age becomes a necessity in the new universities, bound 
to make the higher education more accessible and less expensive. 
Even so, the hostel may be more expensive than living at home or 
in lodgings. The additional cost is justifiable in the course of a 
modern education, just as the more costly laboratory method of 

^ Cf. Ure, P. N., "A Residential University," University College, Reading, Twenty-first 
anniversary, 1913, pp. 26-37. 



246 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

instruction is worth more than textbook teaching. Each hall is 
in charge of a warden, as a rule a member of the teaching staff, 
who is responsible for discipline and management. The relation- 
ship between students and staff are furthered by the residence of 
some of the teachers, besides the warden, who are not concerned 
with the government of the hall. A point is made of having a 
spacious site and garden for each hall, and that they shall be acces- 
sible to the college. 

The cost of board and lodging in these hostels for the academic 
year of 30 weeks ranges from $160 to $250. The college fees are 
$100.^ The total cost for each academic year to the student runs 
from $325 to $-125, which is the approximate cost at the Scotch and 
new universities. 

The Scotch and new universities somewhat recently have devel- 
oped a system of approved lodgings. Most of them require regis- 
tered students not living with relatives or friends or in a hall of 
residence to reside in these lodgings, concerning which the univer- 
sity has satisfied itself as to the sanitary and other conditions. Or- 
dinarly a member of the staff acts as supervisor of lodgings. In 
addition to the residential facilities, these universities have arrived 
at other arrangements for promoting corporate life which are almost 
identical in all of them. 

The first of these arrangements is the Students' Kepresentative 
Council, which has spread from Scotland, where it originated in 1881 
at the tercentenary of Edinburgh University.^ The consciousness 
of student membership and activity in a university had been kept 
more alive in Scottish than in other universities by the continuance 
of the election of a rector by them. This first council was organized 
to aid in the celebration of the tercentenary of the university and 
incidentally to keep within limits the usual student demonstrations 
in university ceremonials. The other Scotch universities formed 
councils and the four secured official status from the university 
commissioners of 1889. The concerted action of the councils led to 
the annual Scottish interuniversities conference, followed under an 
impulse from Manchester, since 1903 by the annual British students' 
congress. 

The regulations to make the students' representive council thor- 
oughly representative of every section of the student body vary in 
different universities. Glasgow may be taken as an example. At 
first the students in each faculty elected the same number of rep- 
resentatives and, in addition, the various university societies were 



1 The total fees for the whole course for the B. A. average at the six new universities, 
$295 ; for the B. Sc, $350 ; for B. Eng., $505 ; for B. Med., $710 ; Scotch universities 
about the same ; Cambridge, for B. A., $465 ; for M. B., $685. 

2 Cf. Ch. IX, " Organization and Administration of Universities," p. 159. 



STUDENT LIFE. 247 

directly represented. Experience soon taught that the efficiency 
of the council was increased by disfranchising the societies and by 
giving a larger number of representatives to the upper-class men. 
At present the representatives are elected b}'^ the men and women 
separately and apportioned among the faculties roughly, according 
to the number of students in them. In addition, there are repre- 
sentatives at large, eight men and four women, elected by the general 
body of men and of women, respectively. The editor of the uni- 
versity magazine is an ex officio member. The total number of rep- 
resentatives is 71. The size of the council makes it necessary to 
carry on its worlc by committees. Besides the standing committees 
of the council, there is a grand committee fer and from each faculty. 
The functions of the council are in all the universities — 

to afford u recognized means of communication between the students and the 
university authorities ; to represent the students in such matters as affect their 
interests ; to promote academic and social unity among the students. 

An ordinance of the universities (Scotland) act of 1889 gave the 
council the right to petition " the senatus academicus with i-egard 
to anj^ matter affecting the teaching and discipline of the university," 
also, to petition the university court with regard to any other mat- 
ter affecting the students. The success of the councils has assured 
their permanence and establishment widely in the university world. 
The Scotch rectors confer with the councils before they appoint 
their assessors in the university court. Major changes in the cur- 
riculum even have been due to the representations of councils. 

Ordinarily one of the first fruits of a students' council has been 
the formation of " a students' union," everywhere found to be a 
most efficient means of promoting corporate life.^ Commodious and 
expensive buildings, erected by funds raised by graduates and stu- 
dents, are now to be found in practically all these universities. They 
provide facilities for reading, writing, dining, games, and accommo- 
dation for numerous college societies who desire to make the build- 
ings their headquarters. Commonly, membership of the union is 
open to present and former students, to graduates, and to the author- 
ities and staffs of the institution, upon the payment of annual or 
life subscriptions. As a rule a union is managed by present and 
former students by means of a committee of management. There 
are separate students' unions for women. In many cases subscription 
to the university union is compulsory on students and carries with 
it membership of the various athletic clubs. Sometimes the union 
has also the management of the athletic grounds and sports, as well 
as of the social entertainments. 

Students' societies and clubs of every kind abound. While the 
organization of them requires the permission of the university au- 

iCf. pp. 239-240. 



248 HIGHER EDUCATION IN" ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

thorities, this is given with the greatest freedom. Opportunity is 
given for propaganda of every kind. 

Thus the corporate life is diversified, made tolerant, and kept keen 
intellectually. The great movements of the day seek a university 
connection, which keeps the universities in contact with the social 
movements of the world and prepares the way for a university 
leadership of them. An instance is the Christian Union. There 
are some 150 of these unions in all the universities and almost all the 
colleges of Great Britain and Ireland. They are affiliated to the 
student Christian movement, which is in turn one of the 15 national 
movements Avhich together form the World's Student Christian 
Federation, with a membership of 150,000 present students. 

The total absence of college Greek-letter fraternities is not due to 
opposition to them, but probably in no small part to the existence of 
hostels and approved lodgings and in the older universities of the 
separate colleges with their social features. The numerous ephem- 
eral clubs, as well as the permanent ones, largely supply the place of 
the fraternities. 

Arrangements for giving advice to students have been multiplied. 
Within six or seven years at Cambridge " supervisors of studies '" or 
" directors of studies " ^ have been appointed by the masters and fel- 
lows of colleges. A supervisor, say in natural science or in history, 
takes men for an hour a week for informal and private advice. Glas- 
gow has appointed " official advisers of studies." In Liverpool the 
dean of each faculty in his function as an adviser of students is sup- 
plemented by departmental tutors. The arrangement is a voluntary 
one on the part of both tutor and student. At Leeds each student is 
advised by the head of the department in which he proposes to work. 
In all the universities efforts are being made to increase the personal 
contact of the teacher with the student in all his interests. 

The spirit of the old and now of the new British universities to 
educate the student by the corporate life no less than by the intel- 
lectual life, which was conserved to a certain degree in the older 
American colleges, but almost lost in the newer institutions through 
the influence of the German university, has been revived in America, 
notably by the examples of Princeton and Chicago. 

» Cf. Ch. X, " University Officers," pp. 174-175. 



Chapter XIX. 

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION TEACHING. 



University extension in the sense of the universities carrying 
higher education to adults has had an unparalleled success in Eng- 
land. The progress of the movement has been remarkable. Instituted 
by the University of Cambridge in 1873, adopted by Oxford in 1878, 
with the work of the London Society for the Extension of University 
Teaching, which was founded in 1876, taken over by the reconsti- 
tuted University of London in 1900, these three universities are the 
world-wide acknowledged leaders of the movement.^ Taking Oxford 
alone, some half million persons have attended the courses given in 
nearly 40,000 lectures by over 200 lecturers. Nearly 30,000 students 
have been examined. 

The original form of university extension teaching has not de- 
clined in England as it has in the United States. The characteristic 
features of the lecture system at local centers, with a class following 
the lecture, the setting of paper work and a final examination, have 
been maintained. This is due in part to the evolution of a series of 
certificates." Honors also are awarded and university privileges 
granted in rare cases, like exemption from the entrance examination 
and the reduction by one year of the period of residence for the de- 
gree of bachelor of arts. 

No small secret of the flourishing of university extension lectures 
has been the arousing of local interests and the organization of per- 
manent local centers. Not only was a local university extension 
society organized, consisting of annual subscribers, entitled to lec- 
ture tickets, but also a local students' association. The objects of 
the association have been to assist students to carry on the work 
of the lectures by means of meetings and of a students' library, 
and to promote the social side of the work. 

* Cf. Chs. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," pp. 20, 37 ; III, " University of London," 
p. 72 ; IV, " The New or Provincial Universities," pp. 104-105, 107, 109. 

2 Terminal certificate after examination on a course of 10 or 12 lectures ; sessional 
certificate on a course of 24 ; sessional certificate in honors ; aflBliatlon certificate (or 
higher certificate of systematic study) for a sequence of 96 lectures plus examinations ; 
vice chancellor's certificate and affiliation certificate plus examination in elementary 
mathematics and two languages. 

249 



250 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

An important step has been the recognition by the university of 
a uniA'ersity extension center as an affiliated center. By the scheme 
of affiliation, courses of instruction in sequence are provided, extend- 
ing over a period of three years, and including not less than 96 
lectures and classes. These courses afford opportunities not only 
for general culture for adults but also for preparation of students 
intending to proceed to the university. An " affiliation certificate " 
with its privileges at the university maj^ be obtained. At this point 
we observe a development of university extension by which it be- 
came the parent of municipal colleges, some of which have become 
the great provincial or new universities. The humbler widely scat- 
tered municipal colleges, in addition to being " affiliated centers," 
are schools of science, technology, commerce, and domestic science, 
with day departments. They prepare for the intermediate examina- 
tion of the University of London in arts, science, engineering, and 
for preliminary scientific medical examinations, as well as for civil 
service examinations. They come near fulfilling the early dream 
of university extension in the time of the Commonwealth by William 
Dell, master of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, who urged 
the establishment of universities or colleges in every great town, 
and that " it may be so ordered that the youth may spend some part 
of the day in learning or study and the other part of the day in 
some lawful calling." 

The real secret of the success of university extension Avas found 
when the movement not only went outside the university, but re- 
turned to carry on its Avork within the university. The university 
spirit in the instruction is maintained among the widely scattered 
affiliated centers and colleges, not only by the sending out of uni- 
versity teachers, but also by gathering in a goodly number of the 
students from the centers at the " summer meetings " in the universi- 
ties themselves. These summer meetings have become an integral 
part of the extension system. The meeting of 1915 at Oxford, the 
nineteenth of the annual meetings, held generally alternately at 
Oxford and Cambridge, though owing to the war not enrolling the 
usual 1,000 students, was full of enthusiasm and gave proof of the 
vitality of the movement. The subject of study, " The Genius of 
Ancient Greece and its Influence on the Modern World," chosen 
long before the Avar, was treated profitably, w^ith its reflections of 
present-day problems as regards peace and Avar, the individual and 
the State, and the production and distribution of wealth. Despite 
the Avar the summer meetings at other uniA-ersities were not omitted. 
In the summer meetings no attempt is made to open all departments 
of instruction. Different fields are selected in different j^ears. This 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSION TEACHING. 251 

makes intensive study possible, and avoids to a certain degree the 
superficiality often attributed superciliously to extension Avork. 

The next stage in university extension was marked by the found- 
mg of Euskin College at Oxford, followed by an agitation to estab- 
lish a workingman's college, incorporated in the university. These 
were first fruits of the desire to gather the most promising univer- 
sity extension students within the fold of the university, and of a 
notion, implicit in university extension from the days of Mark Pat- 
tison, that the university should admit to its benefits " a class w^hich 
has hitherto been excluded by social position or income." A sym- 
pathetic atmosphere at Oxford welcomed Ruskin Hall, now Ruskin 
College, an institution still not officially attached to the university. 
The opening of the college was trebly significant. Prof. York Pow- 
ell, a representative of the group of reformers within the university, 
presided.^ Representatives of some 300,000 workpeople were present, 
indicating the event as one of "the most remarkable efforts of the 
British labor movement." The date, the anniversary of the birth 
of George Washington, in 1889, was chosen by the founder, Mr. Wal- 
ter Vrooman, an American citizen, that the college might have the 
same birthday as Washington in order to perpetuate one of its ideals, 
that it should be a link between Britain and America. 

This was the first residential institution in Great Britain for the 
education of adult working-class students, who Avere to use the 
knoAvledge they acquired there " in order to raise and not to rise out 
of " the class to which they belong.^ The college has flourished 
since 1910, when, in reaction against an unacademic use of the col- 
lege for a special propaganda, the present principal was appointed, 
and the government placed in the control of a council elected by 
labor organizations advised by a consultive committee of educational 
experience. In 1913, on the birthday of the college, the first wing 
of new buildings planned to accommodate 100 students Avas opened.^ 
Up to that time some 500 students had passed through the college, 
and over 9,000 students had taken correspondence courses. Within 
the three preceding 3^ears, 28 Ruskin students had taken the exami- 
nation for the Oxford diploma in economics and political science, 
of Avhom 26 Avere successful and 16 obtained distinction. In 1914 
arrangements were made for the reception of the first woman stu- 
dent at the college. 

1 Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 23. 

2Bd. of Educ. Rep. of an Inspection of Ruskin College, Apr. 21-26. 1913. 
3 Ruskin College, Oxford, Opening of New Building and Unveiling of the Buxton 
Memorial, Feb. 22, 1913, Report of the Proceedings. 



252 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Though temporarily closed in 1915 on account of the war, one 
may look forward with confidence to its future ; for, in the words of 
the inspectors: 

The success of the college as an educational experiment may be regarded as 
established. When it was founded, it might not have been regarded as possible 
that workmen taken straight from industrial occupations should be able, after 
a brief and belated apprenticeship to learning, to enter successfully for uni- 
versity examinations. Ruskin College has thrown new light on the educa- 
tional possibilities of industrial society.^ 

In view of the limited scope of Ruskin College and the report^ 
of the working-class education committee that university extension 
failed to satisfy the needs of the industrial classes on account of the 
necessity that it should be self-supporting, Lord Curzon committed 
himself in 1909 to the advocacy of founding a university working- 
men's college. His idea was that it should be a poor men's college, 
in which the sons not only of artisans but of tradesmen, of farmers, 
and of small professional men should commingle. The bond of 
union would be humble means. He asserts : 

A worse disaster could hardly befall English education than that the new 
universities should become the exclusive resort of the poor and unpolished man 
and that Oxford and Cambridge should be reserved for the rich and cultured.* 

Members of the proposed college were to be matriculated and to 
have the enjoyment of all university privileges. To meet their 
financial necessities they would not be expected to take a three years' 
course leading to a degree, but to take a diploma at the end of two 
years. A candidate would be at liberty to remain and proceed to a 
degree. The college would remain in session throughout the vaca- 
tion, and the total cost would, if possible, be not more than $300 
per annum.* A large number of maintenance scholarships were to 
be attached to the college, which Lord Curzon would appeal to the 
richer colleges to contribute. He also sought an outside benefactor 
to build and endow such a college. No response has been made to 
the appeals, and the entire scheme has found little favor in any 
quarter and may be considered dead. Doubtless the war, with its 
resultant retrenchments in all the colleges and readjustment of the 
" classes " in England, will bury it. 

The workers' educational association represents a movement for 
years flowing side by side with university extension and at length, 

1 Report of an Inspection, supra, p. 18. 

* Report of a Joint Committee of University and Wcrking-Class Representatives on 
the Education of Work-People, Oxford, 1908 ; cf. p. 253. 

s Lord Curzon, supra, p. 67. Cf. Ch. I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 21. 
*At Ruskin College the collegiate year is 44 weeks and the cost $2G0. 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSION TEACHING. 253 

in 1907-8, joining it in forming tutorial classes, which has given the 
latest and most promising development of university extension. 
After the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century had " flung 
working men and women into hastily constructed towns " the thought- 
ful W'Orkers of England utilized adult schools, mechanic's institutes, 
workingmen's colleges, and the university -extension lectures.^ 

In 1903, through the efforts of a group consisting entirely of 
trade-unionists and cooperators, seconded by scholars, a national 
conference was held at Oxford. "An association to promote the 
higher education of workingmen, primarily by the extension of uni- 
versity teaching," was formed. Mention was also made of the de- 
velopment of a school-continuation system. The association an- 
nounced its hopes — 

to coordinate existing and to devise fresli means by wliicli working people of 
all degrees may be raised educationally, plane by plane, until they are able to 
take advantage of the facilities which are and may be provided by the uni- 
versities. It is a missionary orgauizatiou working in cooperation with education 
authorities and working-class organizations. It is definitely nousectarian and 
nonpolitical. 

The association spread rapidly by means of conferences and the 
organization of " local associations." 

In 1907, after a second national conference at Oxford, the workers' 
educational association got its present name. A discussion of " what 
Oxford can do for workpeople " led to a clearer conception of the 
work of the association and ultimately to the important report of a 
" joint committee of universit}^ and working-class representatives on 
the education of workpeople." ^ 

At the same time the first experiments on the lines of tutorial 
classes, as they are now known, were tried with complete success, 
at Battersea from the University of London and at Rochdale from 
the University of Oxford. These classes, with which every university 
and every university college in England and Wales is now associated, 
in 1914 numbered 153 and contained about 3,500 working men and 
women pledged to a three years' course of serious study and the writ- 
ing of 12 essays in connection with each year of the course. The 
classes meet once a week, for at least tw^o hours, for 24 weeks in each 
year, half of the time being devoted to class w^ork. The number in 
a class is limited to 32, and they must be adults. Among the condi- 
tions for receiving a possible grant of $150 for each year of the 

'^ Mansbrldge, Albert. " University Tutorial Classes, a study in the development of 
higher education anaong working men and women," Longmans, Gieen, & Co., 1913 Cf. Ch. 
I, " Oxford, Cambridge, Durham," p. 20. 

*Cf. p. 252. 



254 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

course the board of education requires representatiA^es of a university 
or university college upon the body supervising the class, which body 
must be responsible for the framing of a syllabus and the selection 
of a tutor. The instruction must aim at reaching, within the limits 
of the subject covered, the standard of university work in honors. 

Diplomas and degrees are not asked for, and much is made of the 
spirit of comradeship in the classes. The practice is growing of 
holding week-end meetings and summer schools at the universities 
to which the members of the tutorial classes resort for periods from 
two to eight wrecks. The financial support accorded to tutorial 
classes since their establishment, and to summer schools in connection 
with them, amounts to $187,700.^ The tutorial classes have been 
aided not only by traveling libiaries loaned by the universities, but 
also by the formation of a students' central library. 

The university tutorial classes have stood the test of the war, 
though diminished by enlistments. Subjects cognate to the war or 
arising out of it, judiciously studied, have cultivated the "historic 
sense and steadied men in the midst of this unprecendented cat- 
aclysm." The numerous educational classes and reading circles or- 
ganized by the Workers' Educational Association, entirely apart from 
the university tutorial classes, show the permeation of the associa- 
tion by the original missionary spirit of university extension. 
Classes and lectures have been held in rural districts, and the ideal 
presented that every village should have its branch of the Workers' 
Educational Association. Special classes for women have been multi- 
plied, especially in literature, modern history, and child study. 
Under the impetus of the war, first aid and home nursing have been 
taken up to reach a fresh type of student. 

The association has followed the soldiers into their camps with 
lectures and even with instruction in French. They have instituted 
a war-time comradeship committee.. Its duty is to organize the 
supply of letters and magazines to those at the front; to bring 
soldiers' wives together for educational purposes ; to supply talks in 
convalescent homes. The marvelous growth of the association, its 
maintenance in the crisis of war, and its success in the federation 
of labor and learning, mark it as a phenomenal sign of the times.- 

1 From universities, $87,200 ; from the State, $60,000 ; local education authorities, 
$30,500; sundry, $10,000. 

2 In 1915, in Great Britain and Ireland, the association has 173 branches, 2,409 affili- 
ated societies, 11,083 members, and 9 daughter associations in the over-seas dominions. 
The affiliated societies include 902 trade-unions, trade councils, and branches, 383 co- 
operative committees, 341 adult schools, brotherhoods, etc., 16 university bodies, 21 
local education authorities, 178 working men's clubs and institutes, etc., 61 teachers' 
associations. 148 educational and literary societies. 59 classes and study circles, and 300 
various societies, mainly of workpeople. (The Workers' Educational Association. 
Twelfth An. Ropt. 1915.) Cf. Rept. of the Univ. of London Joint Com. for the I'romotion 
of the Higher Educ. of Working People, 1909-1913, Feb., 1914. Cf. Education and the 
Workiug-Class (Reprint from " The Round Table," Mar., 1914). 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSION TEACHING. 255 

The association has added an extension to university extension 
which has more thoroughly democratized the latter, and is linking 
up a system of national education around the universities. The 
war has emphasized the fact that it is a national movement and has 
introduced a new phase in adult education. University extension 
folloAved popular technical education with cultural studies. In turn 
attention has been given to the social sciences in the period of social 
reform in England since the opening of the century. The war has 
brought home to the mass of the people their ignorance of inter- 
national affairs. The workers' educational association and uni- 
versity extension have been quick to seize this opportunity to meet 
the demand for instruction in modern history and international 
politics. 

An impetus and a timely help in the higher ranges of their work 
will be given by the newly formed " Council for the Study of In- 
ternational Relations," of w^hich Viscount Bryce is president, and the 
chairman of the Yorkshire district of the workers' educational 
association has been chosen secretary. The present crisis and the 
present stage of extra mural university activities give new force to 
the words of Bishop Gore at the Oxford conference in 1907, when he 
quoted the remark, " The great function of the universities is to edu- 
cate the governing classes." He added, " Everybody who has eyes 
to see must recognize that the governing classes in England and in 
other countries include, and that continually in a broader and in- 
tenser form, those who work with their hands." INIr. Mansbridge 
prophesies, " The universities can never be the same again. Plato's 
contention that students should proceed to higher study after ex- 
perience of life is abundantly reenforced by the practice of tutorial 
classes." ^ 

The importance of university extension and an indication that 
the spirit of it possesses all classes appear in an organization, the 
Cavendish Association, correlative among the " upper classes " to the 
workers' educational association. One of the outcomes of the cele- 
brations of the coronation of King George was the formation of the 
Cavendish Club, promoted by the Duke of Devonshire, whose family 
name it took. It is a London social club of some 1,400 public-school 
and university men whose main objects are to encourage its members 
to devote their leisure time to some form of social service and to 
bear witness to the Christian spirit as its motive force. In 1913 it 
was proposed to found a Cavendish Association along similar lines. 

^ Mansbridge, «upra, p. 125 



256 HIGHER EDUCATION IN" ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

An appeal was made to public-school and university men by means 
of meetings throughout the country to form, at important centers, 
branches of the association to impress upon the men their responsi- 
bilities as citizens in the matter of national, civic, and social service. 
A suggestive list of opportunities for social service was circulated, 
leaving every man without excuse for not finding in his own locality 
that special piece of work for which he might be adapted. Planted 
just before the war, this association has not had time to take deep 
root, but it exists in suspended animation. The association is but 
one of many similar enterprises, like college settlements, which reflect 
a sense of a national need of what Arnold Toynbee called a " citizen 
education." 

University extension is coming to the larger meaning that an 
obligation is laid upon the university graduate, as well as upon the 
university teacher, to supply the community with some form of intel- 
Jigent social service. There is a steady approximation toward Mark 
Pattison's dream that " the ideal of a national university is that it 
should be coextensive with the Nation ; it should be the common 
source of the higher (or secondary) instruction for the community." 
To-day the demand of the workingmen, which can but perpetuate 
.iniversit}^ extension and which is full of hope for democracy, is for 
something more than "bread-and-butter" education. -It is a call 
for a liberal or humane education which is not so much " a means of 
livelihood as a means of life." The earlier day has passed when 
Principal Dale truly said, " The working classes were not ready for 
what the universities had to give, and the universities did not know 
what the working classes wanted." 

The great war has revealed that the United States has many of 
the problems of P^ngland. University extension may aid in solving 
some of them. Many American institutions transplanted it in its 
original form, and some have developed it in very practical ways, 
but in others interest in it has declined. May it not be well to come 
Again to the English fountainhead? Fortunate as Americans esteem 
themselves in the absence of social classes, and in the accessibility 
and inexpensiveness of collegiate education, may there not be search- 
ings of heart, if a due proportion of the children of laboring people 
are in the colleges, and if the colleges are disseminating the spirit of 
humane education in their university extension operations? Are the 
graduates, individually and collectively, spreading the university 
spirit in social service or tending to become an aristocracy of learn- 
ing? Are they in their college associations, fraternities, and clubs 
planning for more than their own social enjoyment? Are they recog- 
nizing their obligations to serve the public in church and state ? The 



UNIVEESITY EXTENSION TEACHING. 257 

American workingman has had faith in his schools and has trusted 
especially the colleges and universities. Has not the time come for 
the labor organizations to strengthen their Riembership and particu- 
larly their leadership by courses of study conducted in connection 
with these institutions with the impartial spirit of truth believed to 
be preserved in them? May not these organizations assure the 
perpetuation of the federation of labor and of higher learning in 
America ? 

89687°— Bull. 16—17 17 



258 



HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 



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259 



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260 



HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 



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261 






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262 



HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 



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264 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Table 6 — University of London Institutions for Instruction and Research, 
1913-U. {See Ch. III.) 

[The first figures after the names indicate the number of "Appointed and recognized 
teachers" or in group (c) of institutions of "Recognized"; the second figures 
the number of "internal students." The letters indicate the faculties in which courses 
may be taken by " internal students," as : A., arts ; T., theology ; L., laws ; M., medi- 
cine ; Mu., music ; S., science; E., engineering; Ec, economics.] 

(a) 

Colleges Incorporated in the University. 

University College— 87 ; 694 ; A., L., M., S., E., Ec. 
King's College — 64 ; 461 ; A., L., M., S., E. 
King's College for Women — 18 ; 57 ; A., S. 

Other Institutions Belonging to the University. 

Goldsmiths' College. (See group (c).) 

Brown Animal Sanatory Institution — ; 0. 

Physiological Laboratory — 3 ; 1 ; S. 

Francis Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics — ; 0. 

(to) 

Schools of the University. 

Imperial College of Science and Technology — 40 ; 341 ; S., B. 
Royal HoUoway College — 17 ; 148 ; A., S. 
Bedford College for Women — 26 ; 292 ; A., M., S. 
East London College— 25 ; 407 ; A., S., E. 
London School of Economics — 25 ; 316 ; A., L., S., E. 
South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye — 4 ; 21 ; S. 
Westfield College— 10 ; 58; A., S. 
London Day Training College — 4 ; 37 ; A. 
New College, Hampstead — 5 ; 35 ; T. 
Hackney College, Hampstead — 6 ; 14 ; T. 
Regent's Park College — 3 ; 10 ; T. 
King's College, Theological Department — 10 ; 40 ; T. 
Wesleyan College, Richmond — 3 ; 2 ; T. 
St. John's Hall, Highbury ; 4 ; 10 ; T. 

St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School — 38; 211; M., S. 
St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School — 35 ; 94 ; M. 
Westminster Hospital Medical School — 23 ; 13 ; M. 
Guy's Hospital Medical School— 35 ; 180 ; M., S. 
St. George's Hospital Medical School — 25 ; 1 ; M. 
London Hospital Medical College — 42 ; 151 ; M., S. 
Middlesex Hospital Medical School — 28 ; 60 ; M. 
Charing Cross Hospital Medical School — 18 ; 4 ; M. 

London School of Medicine for Women (Royal Free Hospital) — 21; 149; M., S. 
University College Hospital Medical School — 24 ; 72 ; M. 
King's College Hospital Medical School — 26 ; 8 ; M. 
St. Mary's Hospital Medical School — 31 ; 69 ; M., S. 
London School of Tropical Medicine — 10 ; 0. 
Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine — 7 ; 8 ; S. 
Royal Army Medical College — 0; (others average 70). 
Royal Dental Hospital and London School of Dental Surgery — 4 ; 0. 
Naval Medical School of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich — ; (others aver- 
age 80). 

(c) 

Institutions Having Recognized Teachers. 

University of London, Goldsmiths' College — 15 ; 73 ; A., S. 

Battersea Polytechnic — 18 ; 109 ; A., S. 

Birkbeck College — 32 : 359 ; A., M., S., Ec. 

City of London College — 4; (other students, 2,261). 

Finsbury Technical College — 2; (other students, 177). 

Jews' College — 4 ; 15 ; A. 

Northampton I'olytechnic Institute — 10 ; 14 ; E. 

Northern Polytechnic Institute — 10 ; 65 ; A., S., E. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 265 

Royal Veterinary College — G ; 14 ; S. 
Sir John Cass Technical Institute — 6 ; 18 ; S. 
South- Western Polytechnic Institute — 16 ; 115 ; A., S., E. 
West Ham Municipal Technical Institute — 11 ; 66 ; A., S., B. 
Woolwich Polytechnic— 7 ; 9 ; S., E. 
Maria Grey Training College — 4 ; 23 ; A. 
St. Mary's College, Paddington — 3 ; 14 ; A. 
Mary Datchelor Training College — 3 ; 7 ; A. 
Borough Road College, Isleworth — 1 ; (other students, 140). 
St. John's College, Battersea — 1; (other students, 150). 
St. Mark's College, Chelsea— 1 ; 0. 

Royal Academy of Music — 5; (other students, 571). "* 

Royal College of Music — 10; (other students, over 400). 
Trinity College of Music — 5; 6 (other students, 644). 
Guildhall School of Music— 3 ; (other students, 2,200). 
Bethlem Royal Hospital — 2. 

Brompton Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest — 14 ; 0. 
Hospital for Siclj Children — 15; (other students, 270). 
National Dental College — 4; (other students, 40). 

National Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic — 15; (other students, 60). 
Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital — 11; (other students, 65;. 

School of Pharmacy of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain — 2; (other 
students, 77). 



266 



HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 







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HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



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HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 










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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



273 









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STATISTICAL TABLES. 275 

Table 15. — Range of salaries. (See Ch. XI, p. 185.) 
UNIVERSITIES. 

ABERDEEN. Professors, $.3,000-.?6,500 ; lecturers, $250-2,125 ; assistants, $250-$l,000. 

BIRMINGHAM. Chairs : 1 at $1,500 ; 3 at $2,500 ; 10 at $3,000 ; 1 at $3,250 ; 1 at 
$3,500; 2 at $3,750; 3 at $4,000; 2 at $4,250; 1 at $5,000; assistants and other 
members of teaching staff, 1 at .$550 ; 1 at $650 ; 22 at $750 ; 2 at $800 ; 3 at $875 ; 
1 at $900 ; 16 at $1,000 ; 2 at $1,250 ; 1 at $1,375 ; 3 at $1,500 ; 2 at $2,000. 

BRIf-TOL. The salaries of the staff vary up to a maximum of $3,250. In the Merchant 
Venturers' College salaries vary up to $2,175. 

CAMBRIDGE. Professors, usually $3,000-$3,500 ; readers, usually $1,500; lecturers and 
demonstrators, $250-$l,000. Often all these fixed amounts are increased by certain 
fees and college privileges. 

DURHAM. Durham Colleges: Professors and lecturers, $l,000-$2.500 ; other members 
of staff, $175-$1,500. Armstrong College, Newcastle: Professors, $2,500-$8,000 ; 
lecturers and heads of departments, $750-$2,000 ; demonstrators, $600-.$650. Col- 
lege of Medicine, Newcastle : 19 professors, 4 lecturers, and 8 demonstrators ; salaries 
vary from $52.25-$3,750 

EDINBURGH. Chairs. $3,000-$8,000 ; lecturers, $105-$3,000 ; assistants or demon- 
strators, $80-$l,500. Heriot Watt College : Professors, $2,500-$3,000 ; lecturers in 
charge of departments, $l,500-$2,000 ; assistant professors and other members of 
staff, $400-$l,125 ; lecturers and instructors for evening classes six months' winter 
session, $100-$7.50. 

GLASGOW. Professors, $2,500-$6,000 ; lecturers, $l,000-$2,000 ; assistant lecturers, 
$500-$750. Royal Technical College : Professors. $2,125-$3,500 ; lecturers, $1,000- 
$1.625 ; other members of staff, $500-$1.000. West of Scotland Agricultural Col- 
lege : Professors, $2,500 ; lecturers, $750-$l,500 ; other members of staff, $400-$750. 

LIVERPOOL. Professors, $2,500-$5,000, with a share of fees ; guaranteed minimum, 
$3,000 ; lecturers in charge of departments. $l,250-$2,000, with a share of fees ; 
assistant lecturers and demonstrators, $375-$750. 

LONDON. Professors (full time), $3,000-$5,000 ; principal, $10,000; readers, $500- 
$1,500 ; lecturers pro rata for work done ; other members of clerical and official staff, 
$7.25 per week to $4,000 per annum. East London College : Professors, $2,000- 
$3,000 ; lecturers, $800-$l,750 ; assistant lecturers and demonstrators, $2o0-$l,250. 
Goldsmiths' College: Vice principals of training department (men) $3,000, (women) 
$2,650 ; heads of engineering department and school of art, $2,000 each ; lecturers, 
$1,000-$1,750 (men), $800-$l,250 (women) : physical instructress, $750; assistants 
in domestic subjects, manual instruction, etc., at various salaries. Imperial College: 
Professors in charge of departments, $5,000-$6,250 ; professors not in charge of 
departments, $3,000-$4,500 : assistant professors, $l,500-$2,500 ; lecturers, $1,000- 
$1,500 ; demonstrators, $750-$l,000 ; assistant demonstrators, $500-$600 ; in each 
appointment to a professorship pension and salary specially considered and deter- 
mined. Kings College for Men and Women : Professors, $l,750-$5,000 ; a.sslstant pro- 
fessors and lecturers, $l,000-$2,750 ; assistant lecturers and demonstrators, $750- 
$1,000 ; junior assistants and demonstrators, $500. School of Economics : Pro- 
fessors or lecturers, $3,000; readers, $1,500; part-time lecturers, from a small fee 
to $2,500. University College : Professors, $2,000-$5,000 ; readers, from $1,500 ; 
lecturers, two-thirds of fees, varying from $125-$1,000 ; assistant professors and 
demonstrators, $250-$l,750. 

MANCHESTER. (Victoria) : Professors, $2,500-$7,500, including a share of fees; lec- 
turers (independent), $1,500; lecturers under direction of professor, $l,000-$2,500 ; 
senior assistant lecturer or demonstrator, $750-$900 ; junior assistant lecturer or 
demonstrator, $750. Municipal School of Technology : Professors, $2,000-$3,500 ; 
lecturers, $1,250-$2,500 ; assistant lecturers, $600-$l,250. 
OXFORD. Professors, $4,500-$5,0O0 ; readers, usually $1,500, with additional fees ; 
tutors, usually $1,000 and additional fees. 

ST. ANDREWS. Professors, $2,750-$3,750 ; lecturers^ $500-$l,750 ; assistants, $500- 
$1,000. Dundee : Professors, $2,000-$3,000 ; lecturers, $750-$l,500 ; assistants and 
demonstrators, $500-$1,000. 
SHEFFIELD. Professors, $2,00O-$5,500 ; lecturers and demonstrators, $500-$l,750. 

INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGES. 

EXETER UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. Professors, $1,250-$1,S00 ; lecturers, $550-$l,175. 
NOTTINGHAM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. Professors (heads of departments), $1,530- 

$3,625 ; lecturers and demonstrators, $650-$l,400 ; evening lecturers and occasional 

class professors paid by hour or term. 



276 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

READING UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. Eleven professors, $l,100-$2,870 ; several per- 
mitted to do outside work ; lecturers, $750-$l,750 ; assistant lecturers, $500-$750 ; 
teachers, $125-$500 ; laboratory assistant, $200-$450 ; laboratory boys, $75-$200 ; 
all members of staff are paid by fixed stipends except certain music teachers. 

SOUTHAMPTON HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. Professors, $1,250-$1,750 ; 1 
professor, $2,000 ; lecturers, $700-$l,000 ; 1 lecturer $1,125. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES. 

BEDFORD COLLEGE, LONDON. Professors, $3,000 ; lecturers, $2,000 ; part-time lec- 
turers, $1500; assistant lecturers, $825-$l,000; assistants and demonstrators, $600- 
$750. 

GIRTON, CAMBRIDGE. Lecturers are paid by the hour for the teaching given. 

KINGS COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. See under London. 

LADY MARGARET HALL, OXFORD. Professors, $750 guaranteed (always exceeded). 
A guaranty of $750 is given to the resident members of teaching staff. 

NEWNHAM, CAMBRIDGE. Lecturers, $600-$800, with board and lodging and pension, 
and fees for teaching given over the minimum salary ; other members of staff, $600- 
$800, with board and lodging and pension. 

ROYAL HOLLO WAY COLLEGE, LONDON. Professors, $3,000 ; lecturers, $600 mini- 
mum, with board and residence. 

ST. HILDA'S HALL, OXFORD. Principal, $1,000, with board and residence ; house 
bursar, $375, with board and residence ; tutors and lecturers, $750-$l,000 ; tutors 
have a fixed salary of $250, with board and residence and a guaranty of $500 if 
tuition fees do not reach that sum. 

ST. HUGH'S COLLEGE, OXFORD. Principal, $625; vice principal, $325; teachers and 
lecturers, $400-$l,250 ; teachers are paid according to the time they give. 

SOMERVILLE COLLEGE, OXFORD. Tutors, $1,000-$1,500 ; a tutor has a guaranteed 
minimum salary of $600, with board and residence. This sum always exceeded. 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen, University of. See University of 
Aberdeen. 

Aberystwyth University College, State aid, 
190. 

Advanced study and research without grad- 
uate schools, 214-222. 

Advisory committees, university organiza- 
tion, 179. 

Agricultural colleges and schools, 1S9— 147 ; 
statistics, 270-272. 

Agricultural education. University of Edin- 
burgh, 66. 

American colleges, lessons to be drawn from 
English universities, 27-28. 

American State universities, influence of 
Scotch universities, 49. 

American universities, office of president, 
180. 

Anderson University, Scotland, 136. 

Applied science, instruction, 205-213. 

Armstrong College. See University of Dur- 
ham. 

Arnold, Matthew, and secondary educa- 
tion, 29. 

Arnold, Thomas, and university reform, 28. 

Art instructions, plea for, in civic universi- 
ties, 106-107. 

Australia, universities, officers, 177. 

Bedford College, London, education of 
women, 148, 150 ; professors' salaries, 
276. 

Birbeck College, London, 136. 

Birmingham, University of. See University 
of Birmingham. 

Bristol, University of. See University of 
Bristol. 

Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, Lon- 
don, 85. 

Bryce, Lord, on Scotch universities, 46 ; on 
value of university education, 17. 

Cambridge, University of. See University 
of Cambridge. 

Cambridge and Oxford Schools Examination 
Board, work, 227-231. 

Carnegie trust, and universities of Scot- 
land, 48-54 ; leaving certificate exami- 
nation, 226-227. 

Cheltenham Ladies' College, work, 149. 

Chemistry, study at University of Leeds, 123. 

Civic universities, statistics, 207. See also 
Provincial universities and University 
of London. 

" Civic " university, defined, 103-105. 

Coeducation, development, 155-156. 

College, definition, 130 ; technical, 136- 
138; women, 148-158, 273-274. See 
also Agricultural colleges, Technical col- 
leges, etc. 



College and university, definitions, 26. 

Coordination of institutions, England and 
Scotland, 195-204. 

Curricula, English and Scottish universi- 
ties, 232-238. 

Curzon, Lord, on activities of Oxford, 40 ; 
on reforms at Oxford, 21-25. 

Dean, office of, 175. 

Degrees, Oxford and Cambridge, 234 ; Scot- 
tish and English universities, 217-218. 

Dentists' act (1878), 208. 

Dollinger, on university education in Eng- 
land, 33. 

Draper, A. S., on American and English 
universities, 28. 

Dundee College, coordination of institu- 
tions, 195. 

Durham, University of. See University of 
Durham. 

Economics, instruction, England, 82. 

Edinburgh, University of. See University 
of Edinburgh. 

Educational departments, Scotch and Eng- 
lish universities, 211-212; University of 
Edinburgh, 64. 

Egyptology, department, University Col- 
lege, London, 76. 

Engineering education, England, 79-80 ; 
Scotland, 59-60. See also Professional 
education. 

England, coordination of institutions, 195- 
209 ; higher education, 13-45 ; provin- 
cial universities, 102-129 ; State aid to 
universities, 190-192, 194. 

England and Wales, agricultural educa- 
tion, 141-147. 

Entrance examinations, substitution for 
" responsions," Oxford, 22. 

Eugenics, teaching, 86. 

Examinations, 223-231. 

Exeter University College, professors' sala- 
ries, 275. 

Faculty, universities of England and Scot- 
land, 182-189. 

Farnell, L. R., on advanced study and re- 
search work, 221 ; on provisions for the 
faculty in Scottish universities, 184. 

Fellowships, Oxford and Cambridge, 31-32. 

Forestry, importance of instructions, 146. 

Francis Galton Laboratory for A'ational Eu- 
genics, London, 86. 

Girton College, Cambridge, 148, 152 ; pro- 
fessors' salaries, 276. 

Glasgow, University of. See University of 
Glasgow. 

Goldsmith's College, London, activities, 
86-88. 

277 



278 



INDEX. 



Hadow, W. H., on Durham University, 44. 

Haldane, Lord, on corporate spirit of uni- 
versity life, 17. 

Hartley University College, Southampton, 
England, 131. 

Heberden, Vice Chancellor, on value of uni- 
versity education, 17. 

Heriot-Watt College, 137 ; cooperation with 
University of Edinburgh, 198-199. 

Huxley, T. H., on study of science, 205. 

Imperial College of Science and Technology, 
London, activities, 78-82. 

Independent university colleges, statistics, 
268-269. 

King's College for Women, London, origin 
and work, 77-78, 155. 

Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, professors' 
salaries, 276. 

Leeds, University of. See University of 
Leeds. 

Legal education. See Professional educa- 
tion. 

Liverpool, University of. See University 
of Liverpool. 

I. indon. University of. See University of 
Londou. 

London School of Economics and Political 
Science, activities, 82-84. 

London School of Medicine for Women, 
founded, 151. 

McCormick, Sir William, on secondary edu- 
cation, 54. 

McGill LTniversity, Montreal, Canada, office 
of visitor, 174. 

Manchester, University of. See University 
of Manchester. 

Mason, Sir Josiali, on scientific teaching to 
artisans, 116. 

Mason's Science College, merging into Uni- 
versity of Birmingham, 206. 

Medical education. See Professional educa- 
tion. 

Medical school. University of Edinburgh, 63. 

Merton College, Oxford, ancient model, 19. 

Military science, instruction, 243. 

Music, education, 212. 

Newnham College, Cambridge, professors' 
salaries, 276. 

Nottingham University College, Exeter, Eng- 
land, 131 ; professors' salaries, 275. 

Officers, university, 170-181. 

Officers' training corps, Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, 243. 

Oxford, University of. See University of 
Oxford. 

Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examina- 
tion Board, work, 227-231. 

Pensions, universities of Engtand and Scot- 
land, 185-189. 

President, office of, American universities, 
180. 

Professional education, 205-213. 

Provincial universities, England, 102-129 ; 
statistics, 267. 

Queen Margaret College, Glasgow, activities, 
154-155. 

Queen's College, London, first woman's col- 
lege, 148-149. 



Reading University College, professors' sal- 
aries, 276. 

Rector, office of, Scotch universities, 174- 
175. 

Research work without graduate schools, 
214-222. 

Roseberry, Lord, on distinctive character of 
Oxford and Cambridge, 33 ; on Scotch 
universities, 46. 

Royal Albert Memorial LTniversity College, 
Exeter, England, 131. 

Royal College of Science, London, 79. 

Royal Holloway College, origin and activ- 
ities, 150-151 ; professors' salaries, 276. 

Royal School of Mines, London, 79. 

St. Andrews, University of. See Univer- 
sity of St. Andrews. 

St. Hilda's Hall, Oxford, professors' sala- 
ries, 276. 

St. Hugh's College, Oxford, professors' 
salaries, 276. 

Salai-ies, professors and instructors, uni- 
versities of England and Scotland. 185, 
275-276. 

Scholarships. Oxford University, 30-31. 

School certificate examinations, 228. 

Science, applied, study, 205-213. 

Scotland, agricultural education, 139-141 ; 
coordination of institutions, 195-204. 

Scotland (universities), 46-66; office of 
rector, 174-175 ; organization, 167-168 ; 
provisions for the faculty, 184 ; State 
aid, 190-192 ; statistics, 260-261. 

Scottish history and literature, chair, 
University of Glasgow, 59. 

Secondary education, training of teachers, 
Oxford and Cambridge, 211. 

Secondary schools, importance, 29. 

Seeley, J. R., on civic universities, 104-105. 

Sheffield, University of. See University of 
Sheffield. 

Somerville College, Oxford, tutors' salaries, 
276. 

Sonnenschein, E. A., on instruction in art, 
106 ; on t-echnical education, 206. 

South Africa, university commission, re- 
port on organization of universities, 163. 

Southampton Hartley University College, 
professors' salaries, 276. 

State aid and visitation, universities of 
England and Scotland, 190-194. 

Student life, English and Scotch universi- 
ties, 239-248. 

Students' representative councils, 246. 

Students' settlement. University of Glas- 
gow, 69. 

Tanner, Dr., on value of education at 
Cambridge, 17. 

Teachers, training for public elementary 
schools, 211. 

Teachers' Registration Council, organiza- 
tion and work. 210-211. 

Technical college, definition, 136. 

Technical colleges and schools, 136-138, 
270-272. 

Technological instruction, 92, 



INDEX. 



279 



Theological education, women entitled to 
teach, 157. See also Professional educa- 
tion. 

Thwing, C. F., on distinctive character of 
Oxford and Cambridge, 33-34. 

Tillyard, A. I., on activities of Cambridge, 
40. 

Universities, England and Scotland, statis- 
tics of professors" salaries, 275-276 ; or- 
ganization and administration, 159-169. 
See also Colleges. 

University College, London, 72-76. 

University College, Reading, England, 131, 
133-135. 

University colleges, independent, 130-135. 

University education, valae of, 17-18. 

University extension, teaching, 92-93, 249- 
257. 

University of Aberdeen, origin and activi- 
ties. 61-63 ; professors' salaries, 275. 

University of Birmingham, and Mason's 
Science College, 206 ; origin and activi- 
ties, 116-119 ; professors' salaries, 275. 

University of Bristol, officers, 172 ; origin 
and activities, 127-129 ; professors' sala- 
ries, 275. 

University of Cambridge, advanced study 
and research, 214-217 ; agitation for re- 
forms, 25-26 ; coordination of colleges 
(see Coordination of institutions) ; dis- 
tinctive character, 33-41 ; extension 
work (see University extension teach- 
ing) ; fellowships, 31-32 ; historical in- 
fluences, 14—16 ; history and labors, 
9-41 ; officers, 170-173, 175-179 ; organi 
zation and administration, 160-161, 166; 
pension fund, 186-187 ; professors' sal- 
aries, 275 ; provisions for the faculty, 
182, 18&-187 ; scholarships, 30-31 ; 
spirit of progress, 13 ; statistics, 258- 
259 ; student life, 240-246 ; value of ed- 
ucation, 17 ; women, 148, 152. 

University of Durham, coordination of in- 
stitutions, 195-197 ; office of visitor, 173- 
174 ; origin and activities, 41-45 ; profes- 
sors' salaries, 275 ; statistics, 258-259. 

University of Edinburgh, cooperation with 
Heriot-Watt College, 198-199 ; origin and 
activities, 47, 63-66 ; professors' sala- 
ries, 275 ; provisions for the faculty, 
183 ; students' representative council, 
246-247. 

University of Glasgow, activities, 58-61 ; 
education of women, 154-155 ; estab- 
lished, 47 ; professors' salaries, 275. 

University of Leeds, origin and activities, 
122-124. 

University of Liverpool, origin and activi- 
ties, 119-122 ; professors' salaries, 275. 



University of London, admission of women 
students, 151-152 ; Brown Animal Sana- 
tory Institution, 85 ; establishment, 67 ; 
examinations, 223 ; Francis Galton labo- 
ratory for national eugenics, 86 ; 
Goldsmith's College, 86-88 ; Imperial 
College of Science and Technology, 78- 
82 ; King's College, 77-78 ; London 
school of economics and political science, 
82-84 ; organization and administration, 
95-101, 162, 168-169 ; physiological 
laboratory, 85-86 ; professors' salaries. 
275 ; provisions for the faculty, 183- 
185 ; science teaching, 210 ; statistics, 
262-265 ; University College, 72-76. 

University of Manchester, origin and ac- 
tivities, 112-116 ; professors' salaries, 
275. 

University of Oxford, advanced study and 
research, 214-217 ; coordination of col- 
leges (see Coordination of institutions) ; 
distinctive character, 33-41 ; entrance 
examinations, substitutions for " respon- 
sions," 22 ; extension work (see Univer- 
sity extension teaching) ; fellowships, 
31-32 ; historical influences, 14-16 ; his- 
tory and labors, 9-41 ; officers, 170-173, 
17.5-179 ; organization and administra- 
tion, 160-162, 164, 166-167 ; pension 
fund, 187-188 ; professors' salaries, 275 ; 
provisions for the faculty, 182, 187 ; 
reforms, 21-25 ; residential colleges for 
women, 153 ; scholarships, 30 ; spirit of 
progress, 13 ; statistics, 258-259 ; stu- 
dent life, 239-247. 

University of St. Andrews, activities, 56 ; 
and Dundee, 57-58 ; and education of 
women, 57 ; chartered, 46 ; officers, 178 ; 
professors' salaries, 275. 

University of Sheffield, origin and activi- 
ties, 125-127. 

University officers, 170-181, 

University press, Oxford and Cambridge, 
19-20. 

University publications, 244. 

Vice chancellor, office of, 172-173, 178- 
179. 

Victoria University, Manchester, work, 155. 

Visitation and State aid, universities of 
England and Scotland, 190-194. 

Visitor, office of, 173. 

Wales, agricultural education, 141—147. 

Wilson, Woodrow, on university education, 
18. 

Winchester College, training for univer- 
sity, 28. 

Women (colleges), 57, 78, 148-158, 273- 
274 ; statistics of professors' salaries, 
276. 

Wykeham, William, and College of Win- 
chester, 28. 



o 



[Continued from p. 2 of covcr.l 

No. 31. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1916. 
*No. 32. Some facts concerning manual arts and home-making subjects in 156 

cities. J. C. Park and C. H. Harlan. 5 cts. 
No. 33. Registration and student records in smaller colleges. B. F. Andrews. 
No. 34. Service instruction of American corporations. Leonhard F. Fuld. 
No. 35. Adult illiteracy. Winthrop Talbot. 
'No. 36. Montlily record of current educational publications, December, 1916. 

5 cts. 
No. 37. Cooperative system of education. C. W. Park. 
No. 38. Negro education. Volume 1. Thomas Jesse Jones. 
No. 39. Negro education. Volume 2. Thomas Jesse Jones. 
No. 40. Gardening in elementary city schools. C. D. Jarvis. 
No. 41. Agricultural and rural extension schools in Ireland. A. C. Monnhau. 
No. 42. Minimum school term regulations. J. C. Muerman. 
No. 43. Educational directory, 1916-17. 
*No. 44. The district agricultural schools of Georgia. C. H. Lane and D. J. 

Crosby. 5 cts. 
No, 45. Kindergarten legislation. Louise Schofield. 
No. 46. Recent movements in college and university administration. S. P. 

Capen. 
No. 47. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of 

Alaska,' 1914-15. 
No. 48. Rural school supervision. Katherine M. Cook and A. C. Monahan. 
No. 49. Medical inspection in Great Britain. E. L. Roberts. 
No. 50. Statistics of State universities and State colleges, 1916. 

1917. 

*No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1917. 
5 cts. 

No. 2. Reorganization of English in secondary schools, James F. Hosic. 

No. 3. Pine-needle basketry in schools. William C. A. Hammel. 

No. 4. Secondary agricultural schools in Russia. W. S. Jesien. 

No. 5. Report of an inquiry into the administration and support of the Colo- 
rado school system. Katherine M, Cook and A, C, Monahan. 

No. 6. Educative and economic possibilities of school-directed home gardeninj; 
in Richmond, Ind. J. L. Randall. 

No. 7, Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1917. 

No. 8. Current practice in city school administration. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 9. Department-store education. Helen R, Norton, 

No. 10. Development of arithmetic as a school subject. W. S. Monroe. 

No. 11. Higher technical education in foreign countries. A. T. Smith and 
W. S. Jesien. 

No. 12. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1917. 

No. 13. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1917. 

No. 14. A graphic survey of book publication, 1890-1916. F. E, Woodward. 

No. 15. Studies in higher education in Ireland and Wales. Geo. E, MacLean. 

No. 16. Studies in higher education in England and Scotland. Geo. E. 
MacLean. 

No. 17, Accredited higher institutions. S. P. Capen. 

No. IS. History of public school education in Delaware, S. B. Weeks. 

No. 19. Report of a survey of the University of Nevada. 

No. 20. Activities of school children in out-of -school hours. C. D. Jarvis. 

No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1917. 

No, 22. Money value of education. A. C. Ellis, 



